Church History
5/20/25
Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889). Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).
"§119. The Arian Controversy down to the Council of Nicaea, 318-325." (pp. 2344-2348).
The Arian controversy, though mostly focused on Christ, also makes claims about the Holy Spirit (Schaff 2014, p. 2344). For this reason it was very important to all Trinitarian thought. As Schaff evaluates the issue, "If God is one and if Christ and the Holy Ghost are distinct from the Father and yet participate in the divine substance, God must be triune" (Schaff 2014, p. 2345). The concepts, though not the word 'trinity," can be found throughout the Scriptures.
Schaff deals with the Arian controversy in three stages. He first discusses the emergence of the controversy and the period to the council of Nicea, where orthodoxy was reaffirmed (Schaff 2014, p. 2346). Next he treats reactions to the Nicene decisions up to the death of Constantius in 361. Finally, he reviews the final battles up to the council of Constantinople in A.D. 381. While Arianism was rejected in the councils of Nicea and Constantinople, it remained a minority view, particularly gaining strength in the Germanic nations for over 200 years (Schaff 2014, p. 2346).
Schaff considers the contradictory views of Origen along with poorly communicated elements of discussion between Antioch and Alexandria to have led to the rise of Arianism (Schaff 2014, p. 2346). The hints at subordinationism and the question of whether the Son was generated as a secondary substance could lead to a denial of the eternity of the Son.
Arius, who served as a presbyter of Alexandria starting in 313, had a reputation for disputations. He pressed the views stated by Origen to their breaking point, affirming that, though Crhist was the creator of the world, he himself was part of the created order (Schaff 2014, p. 2347). Arius and his followers were excommunicated in 321, as they denied the deity of Christ. Arius continued to teach and write in Palestine and Nicomedia (Schaff 2014, p. 2348). He was defended by some bishops and condemned by others. The groups of bishops then engaged against one another, creating a theological and diplomatic crisis. Under the influence of Constantine, the parties were brought to seek a clear answer based on definitive truth rather than on political influence. This led to the Nicene council of 325.
"§120. The Council of Nicaea, 325." (pp. 2349-2358).
Schaff, after a fairly extensive bibliography, introduces the reader to Nicea, which has fallen into decline, but at his time still existed as Isnik, in Turkey (Schaff 2014, p. 2350). In 325 it was a thriving city, easily accessible. The emperor Constantine called for the council in 325, offering transportation and lodging expenses for each bishop, and for each bishop to bring "two presbyters and three servants" (Schaff 2014, p. 2350). The emperor was strictly unwilling to hear personal complaints, but protected the purpose of the gathering to discuss the theological matters for which the council was called.
Only about a sixth of the estimated 1,800 bishops attended, all but seven of the attendees being from the Eastern regions.
The council was formally opened by the arrival of the emperor (Schaff 2014, p. 2351). Schaff notes the substantial change in tone from the recent persecutions to the presence of an emperor who showed considerable courtesy and respect toward Christianity (Schaff 2014, p. 2352). Among the notable people at the council we number Eusebius of Caesarea, who served to moderate some discussions, from a post next to the emperor, and Athanasius, who, at the time, served as an archdeacon (Schaff 2014, p. 2353). Many of the participants bore signs of persecution or of the hardship of an ascetic life.
In the council, the orthodox were, at first, the minority (Schaff 2014, p. 2354). The Arian view was represented by about twenty bishops. The majority, following Eusebius of Caesarea, gradually moved their alignment from a centrist position toward orthodoxy.
Schaff describes presentation of several versions of creeds, some of which had been used in other regions in the past. Versions of a creed which was acceptable to the Arians were considered suspect by the Orthodox partisans. After a number of revisions and counter-proposals, the version which is now in use, but ending with "we believe in the Holy Ghost" was adopted. The remainder was added in the council of Constantinople. Bishops who approved physically signed the creed, the first time such an action is known to have been performed in Christianity (Schaff 2014, p. 2356). Arians and two others who refused to sign were banished to Illyria. Schaff noted this as the first known civil punishment for heresy.
The council of Nicea also spoke to the dating of Easter and a schism in Meletia, which Schaff discusses elsewhere. There were a total of twenty canons and the creed published, but no definitive account of the deliberations (Schaff 2014, p. 2356). The emperor further promulgated the decisions as law (Schaff 2014, p. 2357).
5/20/25
Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889). Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).
"§119. The Arian Controversy down to the Council of Nicaea, 318-325." (pp. 2344-2348).
The Arian controversy, though mostly focused on Christ, also makes claims about the Holy Spirit (Schaff 2014, p. 2344). For this reason it was very important to all Trinitarian thought. As Schaff evaluates the issue, "If God is one and if Christ and the Holy Ghost are distinct from the Father and yet participate in the divine substance, God must be triune" (Schaff 2014, p. 2345). The concepts, though not the word 'trinity," can be found throughout the Scriptures.
Schaff deals with the Arian controversy in three stages. He first discusses the emergence of the controversy and the period to the council of Nicea, where orthodoxy was reaffirmed (Schaff 2014, p. 2346). Next he treats reactions to the Nicene decisions up to the death of Constantius in 361. Finally, he reviews the final battles up to the council of Constantinople in A.D. 381. While Arianism was rejected in the councils of Nicea and Constantinople, it remained a minority view, particularly gaining strength in the Germanic nations for over 200 years (Schaff 2014, p. 2346).
Schaff considers the contradictory views of Origen along with poorly communicated elements of discussion between Antioch and Alexandria to have led to the rise of Arianism (Schaff 2014, p. 2346). The hints at subordinationism and the question of whether the Son was generated as a secondary substance could lead to a denial of the eternity of the Son.
Arius, who served as a presbyter of Alexandria starting in 313, had a reputation for disputations. He pressed the views stated by Origen to their breaking point, affirming that, though Crhist was the creator of the world, he himself was part of the created order (Schaff 2014, p. 2347). Arius and his followers were excommunicated in 321, as they denied the deity of Christ. Arius continued to teach and write in Palestine and Nicomedia (Schaff 2014, p. 2348). He was defended by some bishops and condemned by others. The groups of bishops then engaged against one another, creating a theological and diplomatic crisis. Under the influence of Constantine, the parties were brought to seek a clear answer based on definitive truth rather than on political influence. This led to the Nicene council of 325.
"§120. The Council of Nicaea, 325." (pp. 2349-2358).
Schaff, after a fairly extensive bibliography, introduces the reader to Nicea, which has fallen into decline, but at his time still existed as Isnik, in Turkey (Schaff 2014, p. 2350). In 325 it was a thriving city, easily accessible. The emperor Constantine called for the council in 325, offering transportation and lodging expenses for each bishop, and for each bishop to bring "two presbyters and three servants" (Schaff 2014, p. 2350). The emperor was strictly unwilling to hear personal complaints, but protected the purpose of the gathering to discuss the theological matters for which the council was called.
Only about a sixth of the estimated 1,800 bishops attended, all but seven of the attendees being from the Eastern regions.
The council was formally opened by the arrival of the emperor (Schaff 2014, p. 2351). Schaff notes the substantial change in tone from the recent persecutions to the presence of an emperor who showed considerable courtesy and respect toward Christianity (Schaff 2014, p. 2352). Among the notable people at the council we number Eusebius of Caesarea, who served to moderate some discussions, from a post next to the emperor, and Athanasius, who, at the time, served as an archdeacon (Schaff 2014, p. 2353). Many of the participants bore signs of persecution or of the hardship of an ascetic life.
In the council, the orthodox were, at first, the minority (Schaff 2014, p. 2354). The Arian view was represented by about twenty bishops. The majority, following Eusebius of Caesarea, gradually moved their alignment from a centrist position toward orthodoxy.
Schaff describes presentation of several versions of creeds, some of which had been used in other regions in the past. Versions of a creed which was acceptable to the Arians were considered suspect by the Orthodox partisans. After a number of revisions and counter-proposals, the version which is now in use, but ending with "we believe in the Holy Ghost" was adopted. The remainder was added in the council of Constantinople. Bishops who approved physically signed the creed, the first time such an action is known to have been performed in Christianity (Schaff 2014, p. 2356). Arians and two others who refused to sign were banished to Illyria. Schaff noted this as the first known civil punishment for heresy.
The council of Nicea also spoke to the dating of Easter and a schism in Meletia, which Schaff discusses elsewhere. There were a total of twenty canons and the creed published, but no definitive account of the deliberations (Schaff 2014, p. 2356). The emperor further promulgated the decisions as law (Schaff 2014, p. 2357).
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