Friday Scholarly Notes
1/3/25
Bradshaw, Paul F. (2002). Chapter Ten: The Effects of the Coming of Christendom in the Fourth Century." " In The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy. (pages 211-230). Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
Though Bradshaw admits to their being striking developments in Christian liturgy in the fourth century, he observes that many of the changes seem to have roots in the third century or to have appeared only late in the fourth century. He therefore takes them to be less strongly related to the reign of Constantine than we might imagine (Bradshaw 2002, p. 211). For example, monastic practices surrounding the liturgical hours are less a development of the fourth century than a retention of practices common to Christianity in earlier generations (Bradshaw 2002, p. 212). Changes were likely a gradual process, and often an attempt to re-affirm values which had long been acknowledged among Christians.
Bradshaw notes the significant and intentional manner of Christian separation from similar aspects of paganism (Bradshaw 2002, p. 213). However, he maintains that the strength of the culture surrounding Christianity would necessarily have resulted in some levels of similarity in practices. As an example, he notes the laying on of hands typical in manumission may have influenced the practice of a laying on of hands in baptism (Bradshaw 2002, p. 214). Yet, a hesitancy to embrace pagan elements persisted after the Peace of Constantine. Bradshaw uses practices near the Winter Solstice as an example. Christians would engage in a time of fasting and prayer leading up to their celebration of the birth of Christ, while pagans would engage in feasting in anticipation of the solstice (Bradshaw 2002, p. 214). Christmas and other important observances later took on the character of feasts which could be used not to capitulate, but to rival pagan observances. Initiation rites took on a secretive nature similarly to the initiations of the mystery religions, but were not an attempt to make Christianity into a mystery religion (Bradshaw 2002, p. 215). Rites such as the Eucharist tended to become more elaborate so as to mirror the majesty of God in Christ (Bradshaw 2002, p. 216).
Bradshaw proposes that some of the changes in Christian liturgy in the fourth century were related to the fact that Christianity was now considered a cultus publicus and needed to take on a recognizable role in society (Bradshaw 2002, p. 217). Therefore it took on some of the language and symbolism common to publicly recognized religions. The liturgical year could then be more completely developed to serve public purposes. Bradshaw considers that the moves may have also served as an attempt to secure Christian practice and belief among those Christians who had culturally been neglecting the faith (Bradshaw 2002, p. 218).
A general decline in the commitment level of many Christians, in Bradshaw's opinion, could also be related to the desire for more elaborate rituals in the eucharist. He posits an attempt to make the majesty of God more obvious to a congregation and turn their attention to God's glory (Bradshaw 2002, p. 219). Because some people chose not to remain through the eucharist, eventually the eucharist became something treated as optional (Bradshaw 2002, p. 220). Additionally, the seeds for clergy participating in the eucharist while the congregation served as spectators were sown.
Another important element in liturgical changes of the fourth century was a desire for doctrinal precision (Bradshaw 2002, p. 222). The diverse practices seen in earlier periods tended to merge with one another. Increased travel and improved communication of the period facilitated efforts to agree on standard practices. Heretical movements tended to spread. Orthodox Christianity moved to clarify stances and to be sure that practice accorded with theology (Bradshaw 2002, p. 223). Bradshaw provides numerous areas in which theology was self-consciously related in liturgical expressions. In a very real way, doctrine shapes liturgy (Bradshaw 2002, p. 226). Yet, at the same time, Bradshaw sees instances in which liturgy may have influenced doctrine (Bradshaw 2002, p. 228). As an example, he notes that because the eucharist was seen in some ways as an atoning sacrifice, the prayers around it could focus on all sorts of intercession. The final conclusion that Bradshaw makes is that the liturgical developments in the fourth century were exceedingly complex in their nature and worthy of extensive ongoing study (Bradshaw 2002, p. 229).
1/3/25
Bradshaw, Paul F. (2002). Chapter Ten: The Effects of the Coming of Christendom in the Fourth Century." " In The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy. (pages 211-230). Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
Though Bradshaw admits to their being striking developments in Christian liturgy in the fourth century, he observes that many of the changes seem to have roots in the third century or to have appeared only late in the fourth century. He therefore takes them to be less strongly related to the reign of Constantine than we might imagine (Bradshaw 2002, p. 211). For example, monastic practices surrounding the liturgical hours are less a development of the fourth century than a retention of practices common to Christianity in earlier generations (Bradshaw 2002, p. 212). Changes were likely a gradual process, and often an attempt to re-affirm values which had long been acknowledged among Christians.
Bradshaw notes the significant and intentional manner of Christian separation from similar aspects of paganism (Bradshaw 2002, p. 213). However, he maintains that the strength of the culture surrounding Christianity would necessarily have resulted in some levels of similarity in practices. As an example, he notes the laying on of hands typical in manumission may have influenced the practice of a laying on of hands in baptism (Bradshaw 2002, p. 214). Yet, a hesitancy to embrace pagan elements persisted after the Peace of Constantine. Bradshaw uses practices near the Winter Solstice as an example. Christians would engage in a time of fasting and prayer leading up to their celebration of the birth of Christ, while pagans would engage in feasting in anticipation of the solstice (Bradshaw 2002, p. 214). Christmas and other important observances later took on the character of feasts which could be used not to capitulate, but to rival pagan observances. Initiation rites took on a secretive nature similarly to the initiations of the mystery religions, but were not an attempt to make Christianity into a mystery religion (Bradshaw 2002, p. 215). Rites such as the Eucharist tended to become more elaborate so as to mirror the majesty of God in Christ (Bradshaw 2002, p. 216).
Bradshaw proposes that some of the changes in Christian liturgy in the fourth century were related to the fact that Christianity was now considered a cultus publicus and needed to take on a recognizable role in society (Bradshaw 2002, p. 217). Therefore it took on some of the language and symbolism common to publicly recognized religions. The liturgical year could then be more completely developed to serve public purposes. Bradshaw considers that the moves may have also served as an attempt to secure Christian practice and belief among those Christians who had culturally been neglecting the faith (Bradshaw 2002, p. 218).
A general decline in the commitment level of many Christians, in Bradshaw's opinion, could also be related to the desire for more elaborate rituals in the eucharist. He posits an attempt to make the majesty of God more obvious to a congregation and turn their attention to God's glory (Bradshaw 2002, p. 219). Because some people chose not to remain through the eucharist, eventually the eucharist became something treated as optional (Bradshaw 2002, p. 220). Additionally, the seeds for clergy participating in the eucharist while the congregation served as spectators were sown.
Another important element in liturgical changes of the fourth century was a desire for doctrinal precision (Bradshaw 2002, p. 222). The diverse practices seen in earlier periods tended to merge with one another. Increased travel and improved communication of the period facilitated efforts to agree on standard practices. Heretical movements tended to spread. Orthodox Christianity moved to clarify stances and to be sure that practice accorded with theology (Bradshaw 2002, p. 223). Bradshaw provides numerous areas in which theology was self-consciously related in liturgical expressions. In a very real way, doctrine shapes liturgy (Bradshaw 2002, p. 226). Yet, at the same time, Bradshaw sees instances in which liturgy may have influenced doctrine (Bradshaw 2002, p. 228). As an example, he notes that because the eucharist was seen in some ways as an atoning sacrifice, the prayers around it could focus on all sorts of intercession. The final conclusion that Bradshaw makes is that the liturgical developments in the fourth century were exceedingly complex in their nature and worthy of extensive ongoing study (Bradshaw 2002, p. 229).
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