Friday Scholarly Notes
12/20/24
Bradshaw, Paul F. (2002). Chapter Eight: Liturgy and Time." In The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy. (pages 171-191). Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
In this chapter, Bradshaw explores the development of the "Divine Office or the Liturgy of the Hours," the habit of gathering for prayer at particular times of the day. He then discusses the development of a larger pattern, that of the calendar of the liturgical year (Bradshaw 2002, p. 171).
There has been a general understanding that individuals have been encouraged to engage in private prayer at particular times of day since the second century. Corporate gatherings corresponding to these hours have normally been understood as arising in the fourth century (Bradshaw 2002, p. 171). However, in the first half of the twentieth century, some scholars have emphasized the continuity of Christian and Jewish practice. This has led to a particular recognition of the habitual engagement in a morning and evening public service from the earliest period of Christianity (Bradshaw 2002, p. 172). This view, however, has been undermined. It is possible that assemblies for instruction and for prayer were conflated, and that the Jewish practice was not overly uniform.
Further research has suggested divergent practices in ascetic monastic communities as compared to congregations of local Christian churches (Bradshaw 2002, p. 173). The church office, often referred to as "cathedral" practice, would typically occur in the morning and evening, using psalms and hymns, but normally no Scripture readings. Ascetics in monasteries, in contrast, typically would have morning and evening prayers along with additional prayer customs during the day. These observances normally included Scripture readings. The practices, then, are distinct from each other in their nature and their purpose (Bradshaw 2002, p. 174). A habit of gathering for prayer at least five times a day developed in urban monastic communities. As with the rural monastic communities it was not considered necessary to engage in the prayers corporately, though it was common to do so (Bradshaw 2002, p. 175).
Bradshaw observes that the earliest Eastern sources of information do not speak of prayer twice a day, but three times. There are morning and evening prayers, but also at noon. Western sources insert prayers mid-morning, mid-afternoon, and during the night (Bradshaw 2002, p. 175). Yet Bradshaw sees no statements about some times being more important than others. Further, it may have been that a custom of three times of prayer daily was normal, but the specific times of prayer would differ (Bradshaw 2002, p. 176). In a similar pattern, the urban monastics may have represented a common practice, with traditions of prayer at various times, and with other gatherings in morning and evening, like the services in the cathedrals (Bradshaw 2002, p. 177). Practices of monastic communities and cathedrals may well have tended to come together starting in the fifth century, as Bradshaw observes that monks were given positions over the spiritual lives in basilicas in Rome (Bradshaw 2002, p. 177).
The liturgical year may well have developed as an extension of weekly gatherings, apparently primarily on Sundays from the time immediately after the resurrection, and not considered a Sabbath (Bradshaw 2002, p0. 178-179). Wednesday and Friday are identified as days for fasting in Didache 8.2. A service of the Word was eventually attached to those days, in the middle of the afternoon (Bradshaw 2002, p. 179). The celebration of Easter, or Pascha, may have developed quickly, though this is not entirely clear until the second century (Bradshaw 2002, p. 180). There is some debate about whether it was normally recognized on a Sunday as opposed to 14 Nisan. A custom of fasts for some days before Easter developed fairly early (Bradshaw 2002, p. 181). By the start of the third century, Easter and the two fast days before it had developed into one unit, the triduum (Bradshaw 2002, p. 181).
Toward the end of the second century an observation of the 50 days after Easter as the celebratory season was developing. This was considered the season of Pentecost at the time (Bradshaw 2002, p. 182). During this period, the first week after Easter, the Thursday of the ascension, and Pentecost Sunday were the most festal (Bradshaw 2002, p. 183).
Documentation of Lent appears "rather suddenly in the early part of the fourth century" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 183). It was quickly nearly universal in observance. Recent research suggests that the season didn't grow to 40 days over time, as had been previously thought. Rather, it was always a 40 day period, related to Jesus' temptation in the wilderness. The development was a move in its dates. Originally beginning right after Epiphany (January 6), it became attached to Easter, possibly around 325 (Bradshaw 2002, p. 184).
Holy Week, the week before Easter, appears to have developed as pilgrims recognized the events of the week. While the development has often been assigned to the fourth century, Bradshaw notes evidence that the customs may have existed in some areas well before the fourth century, when they were imported into Jerusalem (Bradshaw 2002, p. 186).
Christmas was recognized in Rome and North Africa on December 25 by the mid 4th century. Bradshaw observes that in other areas there was a similar observance on January 6 (Bradshaw 2002, p. 187). The two festivals quickly became nearly universal. Their origins are not very clear. One theory is that early Christians wanted to date Jesus' death on the same calendar date as his conception, thus deriving a December 25 date of birth. Another theory is that December 25 was chosen due to the imperial declaration in 274 of that date for the "birthday of the invincible sun" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 188). The Eastern provinces may have taken January 6 as the solstice. However, Augustine refers to a Christmas date being known prior to 311, at a time when Christians actively avoided any accommodation with pagan Rome. Recent scholarship has suggested that Christians at a very early time took Jesus' birth to be either on December 25 or January 6, and that his baptism by John was also dated near that time of year (Bradshaw 2002, p. 189).
Bradshaw finally comments on the development of saints' days observances. These can be found by the middle of the second century, with a focus on the day of a prominent Christian's death as the time he or she realized eternal life (Bradshaw 2002, p. 190). These days were essentially local observances, marked with the Eucharist, often near the person's grave.
12/20/24
Bradshaw, Paul F. (2002). Chapter Eight: Liturgy and Time." In The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy. (pages 171-191). Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
In this chapter, Bradshaw explores the development of the "Divine Office or the Liturgy of the Hours," the habit of gathering for prayer at particular times of the day. He then discusses the development of a larger pattern, that of the calendar of the liturgical year (Bradshaw 2002, p. 171).
There has been a general understanding that individuals have been encouraged to engage in private prayer at particular times of day since the second century. Corporate gatherings corresponding to these hours have normally been understood as arising in the fourth century (Bradshaw 2002, p. 171). However, in the first half of the twentieth century, some scholars have emphasized the continuity of Christian and Jewish practice. This has led to a particular recognition of the habitual engagement in a morning and evening public service from the earliest period of Christianity (Bradshaw 2002, p. 172). This view, however, has been undermined. It is possible that assemblies for instruction and for prayer were conflated, and that the Jewish practice was not overly uniform.
Further research has suggested divergent practices in ascetic monastic communities as compared to congregations of local Christian churches (Bradshaw 2002, p. 173). The church office, often referred to as "cathedral" practice, would typically occur in the morning and evening, using psalms and hymns, but normally no Scripture readings. Ascetics in monasteries, in contrast, typically would have morning and evening prayers along with additional prayer customs during the day. These observances normally included Scripture readings. The practices, then, are distinct from each other in their nature and their purpose (Bradshaw 2002, p. 174). A habit of gathering for prayer at least five times a day developed in urban monastic communities. As with the rural monastic communities it was not considered necessary to engage in the prayers corporately, though it was common to do so (Bradshaw 2002, p. 175).
Bradshaw observes that the earliest Eastern sources of information do not speak of prayer twice a day, but three times. There are morning and evening prayers, but also at noon. Western sources insert prayers mid-morning, mid-afternoon, and during the night (Bradshaw 2002, p. 175). Yet Bradshaw sees no statements about some times being more important than others. Further, it may have been that a custom of three times of prayer daily was normal, but the specific times of prayer would differ (Bradshaw 2002, p. 176). In a similar pattern, the urban monastics may have represented a common practice, with traditions of prayer at various times, and with other gatherings in morning and evening, like the services in the cathedrals (Bradshaw 2002, p. 177). Practices of monastic communities and cathedrals may well have tended to come together starting in the fifth century, as Bradshaw observes that monks were given positions over the spiritual lives in basilicas in Rome (Bradshaw 2002, p. 177).
The liturgical year may well have developed as an extension of weekly gatherings, apparently primarily on Sundays from the time immediately after the resurrection, and not considered a Sabbath (Bradshaw 2002, p0. 178-179). Wednesday and Friday are identified as days for fasting in Didache 8.2. A service of the Word was eventually attached to those days, in the middle of the afternoon (Bradshaw 2002, p. 179). The celebration of Easter, or Pascha, may have developed quickly, though this is not entirely clear until the second century (Bradshaw 2002, p. 180). There is some debate about whether it was normally recognized on a Sunday as opposed to 14 Nisan. A custom of fasts for some days before Easter developed fairly early (Bradshaw 2002, p. 181). By the start of the third century, Easter and the two fast days before it had developed into one unit, the triduum (Bradshaw 2002, p. 181).
Toward the end of the second century an observation of the 50 days after Easter as the celebratory season was developing. This was considered the season of Pentecost at the time (Bradshaw 2002, p. 182). During this period, the first week after Easter, the Thursday of the ascension, and Pentecost Sunday were the most festal (Bradshaw 2002, p. 183).
Documentation of Lent appears "rather suddenly in the early part of the fourth century" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 183). It was quickly nearly universal in observance. Recent research suggests that the season didn't grow to 40 days over time, as had been previously thought. Rather, it was always a 40 day period, related to Jesus' temptation in the wilderness. The development was a move in its dates. Originally beginning right after Epiphany (January 6), it became attached to Easter, possibly around 325 (Bradshaw 2002, p. 184).
Holy Week, the week before Easter, appears to have developed as pilgrims recognized the events of the week. While the development has often been assigned to the fourth century, Bradshaw notes evidence that the customs may have existed in some areas well before the fourth century, when they were imported into Jerusalem (Bradshaw 2002, p. 186).
Christmas was recognized in Rome and North Africa on December 25 by the mid 4th century. Bradshaw observes that in other areas there was a similar observance on January 6 (Bradshaw 2002, p. 187). The two festivals quickly became nearly universal. Their origins are not very clear. One theory is that early Christians wanted to date Jesus' death on the same calendar date as his conception, thus deriving a December 25 date of birth. Another theory is that December 25 was chosen due to the imperial declaration in 274 of that date for the "birthday of the invincible sun" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 188). The Eastern provinces may have taken January 6 as the solstice. However, Augustine refers to a Christmas date being known prior to 311, at a time when Christians actively avoided any accommodation with pagan Rome. Recent scholarship has suggested that Christians at a very early time took Jesus' birth to be either on December 25 or January 6, and that his baptism by John was also dated near that time of year (Bradshaw 2002, p. 189).
Bradshaw finally comments on the development of saints' days observances. These can be found by the middle of the second century, with a focus on the day of a prominent Christian's death as the time he or she realized eternal life (Bradshaw 2002, p. 190). These days were essentially local observances, marked with the Eucharist, often near the person's grave.
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