Tuesday Lectio
2/4/25
Wegman, Herman A.J. (1985). (Original Dutch, 1976). 'Chapter Four: Toward a Uniform Roman Liturgy: From Gregory VII to the Council of Trent (1545-1563)." In Christian Worship in East and West: A Study Guide to Liturgical History. (pp. 204-238). (Translated by Gordon W. Lathrop). New York: Pueblo Publishing Company. (Personal Library)
Wegman observes that there were significant social and cultural changes in Europe starting roughly in the twelfth century. Along with gains in prosperity, there was increased interest in spiritual and supernatural matters. At the same time, the hierarchical nature of Christianity became more pronounced (Wegman 1985, p. 205). Church leadership became increasingly intertwined with politics. By the fourteenth century, the popes began to try using their authority to defend the work of the church as that which unified society (Wegman 1985, p. 206). Because of the strongly hierarchical patterns of the church, Wegman sees liturgy of this period largely becoming something which was enacted by the clerics and watched like a performance by the faithful. Piety among the laity could thus become separated from the liturgy. Charismatic reform movements became more common, some orthodox, some heretical (Wegman 1985, p. 207).
The hierarchical nature of church structure of the time developed into highly systematized theological and philosophical patterns. In Wegman's estimation these resisted change and also stifled creativity (Wegman 1985, p. 207).
During the period we also see a flourishing type of monastic scholarship, which provided counsel for both political and churchly authorities (Wegman 1985, p. 207). A type of scholasticism developed, influencing universities as well as monastic life. Among the scholastic developments, Wegman considers the sacramental theology to have grown in an important way. Rather than the historic understanding of the importance of a sacrament as the repetition of the sign given by Christ, the understanding shifted to the importance of Christ's institution of the ritual. The sacrament becomes a sign given by Christ, rather than a re-enactment of a gracious act (Wegman 1985, pp. 208-209).
Within the broader culture, Wegman considers a growth of nationalist sentiment to have occurred, thus leading people to consider all other nations inferior to their own (Wegman 1985, p. 209). Around the twelfth century, the contemplative life, especially among monastics, rose to prominence, as did a renewed emphasis on asceticism (Wegman 1985, p. 210). As the Middle Ages moved to a close, Wegman sees both a charismatic and a scholastic movement growing, resulting in a popular piety increasingly contrasted with the hierarchical liturgy (Wegman 1985, p. 211). Schisms and plagues ravaged church and society. This led to a crisis point by the fifteenth century (Wegman 1985, p. 212).
On the liturgical front, Wegman observes the long standing Roman practice of having the pope lead church services in different churches on predetermined dates (Wegman 1985, p. 213). In the tenth century there were attempts to achieve a more standardized liturgy. By the eleventh century, however, the popes had begun to withdraw from direct pastoral care in Rome and to work within the context of the curia romana, associated more with the universal church than the local church (Wegman 1985, p. 214). This move led in turn to isolation of the pope, resulting in his appearance as an imperial figure with his own court and chapel. The papal chapel came to have its own liturgical forms. As time progressed, by the thirteenth century, these forms began to be propagated by papal decree to other areas of the Roman church.
Because of the formality of papal liturgies, which did not lend themselves naturally to urban congregations, especially among the poor, followers of Francis of Assisi put simpler forms of liturgy from earlier papal traditions to use (Wegman 1985, p. 215). While the liturgy could be recognized as related to the papal chapel, it was the simplified liturgy which was propagated throughout Europe (Wegman 1985, p. 216).
Wegman notes that there were a number of reform movements throughout the Middle Ages. While some were charismatic in nature, others attempted to strengthen the hierarchical nature of the Roman church. As the Middle Ages came to a close, the Council of Trent was conceived as an attempt to restore the hierarchy. The controversy at hand was the Reformation's appeal to Scripture and "evangelical freedom over against the traditions of the church" (Wegman 1985, p. 217). Trent, then, strove to deny the legitimacy of all such movements. The Christian life was centered around the legitimacy of the hierarchical clergy structure as expressed in the liturgical forms approved and understood by the hierarchy (Wegman 1985, p. 218).
Wegman reviews in brief a number of secondary and primary sources of information about liturgy leading up to the time of the Reformation. As in earlier times, missals, pontificales, and rubrical works survive (Wegman 1985, pp. 219-223 passim). By this time we observe that there are numerous extant copies of materials in various editions. Wegman notes that breviaries, disseminated widely, allowed pastors to observe liturgical hours in a brief form and still care for their other pastoral work (Wegman 1985, p. 223). Prayer and meditation on the life and work of Jesus grew among clergy and laity alike. Because of limitations in literacy, availability of biblical texts, and the quality of preaching, there were weaknesses in the theology of some forms of popular piety (Wegman 1985, p. 224).
Wegman observes that in this period the Christian festival calendar showed little development (Wegman 1985, p. 225). The focus of festivals tended to shift from the features of the gospel as evidenced in the lives of the saints to a focus on what the Christian would like the saint to do.
Baptismal rituals in the middle ages developed in that the pouring of water and speaking the baptismal formula came to be seen as of primary importance. Infant baptism clearly became the norm, and was practiced as early in life as possible (Wegman 1985, p. 226). The rituals retained the questioning which Wegman considers inappropriate for children, yet which had belonged to the traditions of adult baptism.
During the middle ages, the practice of confirmation continued to become more clearly articulated (Wegman 1985, p. 227). By the early 13th century it had its own prescribed rite, described in detail by Wegman (Wegman 1985, p. 228).
Eucharistic theology developed in some significant ways during the middle ages. Because the eucharist came to be celebrated and received primarily by clergy, the altar typically became smaller (Wegman 1985, p. 229). The emphasis was less on Christ's sacrifice for the Christian and more on the repetition of the Last Supper and its symbolism which was fulfilled in the death of Christ. The faithful become spectators rather than participants. With the articulation of transubstantiation the elevation of the host and the chalice took on special significance (Wegman 1985, p. 230). This in turn led to eucharistic processions for adoration of Christ.
Popular piety was frequently fed by accounts of eucharistic miracles. At the same time, Wegman notes the rise of parodies of the mass, as the general public reflected on the validity of the mass (Wegman 1985, p. 231). A doctrine of the eucharist can be grasped in outline in hymnody. Wegman produces a Latin and English version of St. Thomas Aquinas' hymn Adorate (Wegman 1985, pp. 232-233).
The practice of confession of sins continued in the middle ages. However, Wegman observes that penance came to involve acts drawn from a known list of exercises of different values (Wegman 1985, p. 233). The appropriate restorative acts could be done or, in some cases, the penitent person could pay the confessor an amount sufficient to evade the penalty.
Ordination liturgy did develop to some extent during the middle ages. Wegman describes the rites for ordination of priests, which remained relatively stable in the 12th - 16th centuries. In some rituals of ordination, Wegman finds an emphasis on reception into the hierarchical structure rather than on the appointment as a servant. The laity were not afforded participation in ordination rituals (Wegman 1985, p. 235).
Wegman closes the chapter with a brief survey of prayers for the sick and dying, as well as practices surrounding death (Wegman 1985, pp. 236-237). Human life is fragile, as recognized by medieval people especially. However, along with a frank recognition of death, Wegman sees the rituals surrounding marriage as of long standing elements of society. The church was active in consecrating marriages and recognizing them in its public services (Wegman 1985, p. 237). Though some cultural elements from paganism were retained, they were effectively stripped of their pagan connotations.
2/4/25
Wegman, Herman A.J. (1985). (Original Dutch, 1976). 'Chapter Four: Toward a Uniform Roman Liturgy: From Gregory VII to the Council of Trent (1545-1563)." In Christian Worship in East and West: A Study Guide to Liturgical History. (pp. 204-238). (Translated by Gordon W. Lathrop). New York: Pueblo Publishing Company. (Personal Library)
Wegman observes that there were significant social and cultural changes in Europe starting roughly in the twelfth century. Along with gains in prosperity, there was increased interest in spiritual and supernatural matters. At the same time, the hierarchical nature of Christianity became more pronounced (Wegman 1985, p. 205). Church leadership became increasingly intertwined with politics. By the fourteenth century, the popes began to try using their authority to defend the work of the church as that which unified society (Wegman 1985, p. 206). Because of the strongly hierarchical patterns of the church, Wegman sees liturgy of this period largely becoming something which was enacted by the clerics and watched like a performance by the faithful. Piety among the laity could thus become separated from the liturgy. Charismatic reform movements became more common, some orthodox, some heretical (Wegman 1985, p. 207).
The hierarchical nature of church structure of the time developed into highly systematized theological and philosophical patterns. In Wegman's estimation these resisted change and also stifled creativity (Wegman 1985, p. 207).
During the period we also see a flourishing type of monastic scholarship, which provided counsel for both political and churchly authorities (Wegman 1985, p. 207). A type of scholasticism developed, influencing universities as well as monastic life. Among the scholastic developments, Wegman considers the sacramental theology to have grown in an important way. Rather than the historic understanding of the importance of a sacrament as the repetition of the sign given by Christ, the understanding shifted to the importance of Christ's institution of the ritual. The sacrament becomes a sign given by Christ, rather than a re-enactment of a gracious act (Wegman 1985, pp. 208-209).
Within the broader culture, Wegman considers a growth of nationalist sentiment to have occurred, thus leading people to consider all other nations inferior to their own (Wegman 1985, p. 209). Around the twelfth century, the contemplative life, especially among monastics, rose to prominence, as did a renewed emphasis on asceticism (Wegman 1985, p. 210). As the Middle Ages moved to a close, Wegman sees both a charismatic and a scholastic movement growing, resulting in a popular piety increasingly contrasted with the hierarchical liturgy (Wegman 1985, p. 211). Schisms and plagues ravaged church and society. This led to a crisis point by the fifteenth century (Wegman 1985, p. 212).
On the liturgical front, Wegman observes the long standing Roman practice of having the pope lead church services in different churches on predetermined dates (Wegman 1985, p. 213). In the tenth century there were attempts to achieve a more standardized liturgy. By the eleventh century, however, the popes had begun to withdraw from direct pastoral care in Rome and to work within the context of the curia romana, associated more with the universal church than the local church (Wegman 1985, p. 214). This move led in turn to isolation of the pope, resulting in his appearance as an imperial figure with his own court and chapel. The papal chapel came to have its own liturgical forms. As time progressed, by the thirteenth century, these forms began to be propagated by papal decree to other areas of the Roman church.
Because of the formality of papal liturgies, which did not lend themselves naturally to urban congregations, especially among the poor, followers of Francis of Assisi put simpler forms of liturgy from earlier papal traditions to use (Wegman 1985, p. 215). While the liturgy could be recognized as related to the papal chapel, it was the simplified liturgy which was propagated throughout Europe (Wegman 1985, p. 216).
Wegman notes that there were a number of reform movements throughout the Middle Ages. While some were charismatic in nature, others attempted to strengthen the hierarchical nature of the Roman church. As the Middle Ages came to a close, the Council of Trent was conceived as an attempt to restore the hierarchy. The controversy at hand was the Reformation's appeal to Scripture and "evangelical freedom over against the traditions of the church" (Wegman 1985, p. 217). Trent, then, strove to deny the legitimacy of all such movements. The Christian life was centered around the legitimacy of the hierarchical clergy structure as expressed in the liturgical forms approved and understood by the hierarchy (Wegman 1985, p. 218).
Wegman reviews in brief a number of secondary and primary sources of information about liturgy leading up to the time of the Reformation. As in earlier times, missals, pontificales, and rubrical works survive (Wegman 1985, pp. 219-223 passim). By this time we observe that there are numerous extant copies of materials in various editions. Wegman notes that breviaries, disseminated widely, allowed pastors to observe liturgical hours in a brief form and still care for their other pastoral work (Wegman 1985, p. 223). Prayer and meditation on the life and work of Jesus grew among clergy and laity alike. Because of limitations in literacy, availability of biblical texts, and the quality of preaching, there were weaknesses in the theology of some forms of popular piety (Wegman 1985, p. 224).
Wegman observes that in this period the Christian festival calendar showed little development (Wegman 1985, p. 225). The focus of festivals tended to shift from the features of the gospel as evidenced in the lives of the saints to a focus on what the Christian would like the saint to do.
Baptismal rituals in the middle ages developed in that the pouring of water and speaking the baptismal formula came to be seen as of primary importance. Infant baptism clearly became the norm, and was practiced as early in life as possible (Wegman 1985, p. 226). The rituals retained the questioning which Wegman considers inappropriate for children, yet which had belonged to the traditions of adult baptism.
During the middle ages, the practice of confirmation continued to become more clearly articulated (Wegman 1985, p. 227). By the early 13th century it had its own prescribed rite, described in detail by Wegman (Wegman 1985, p. 228).
Eucharistic theology developed in some significant ways during the middle ages. Because the eucharist came to be celebrated and received primarily by clergy, the altar typically became smaller (Wegman 1985, p. 229). The emphasis was less on Christ's sacrifice for the Christian and more on the repetition of the Last Supper and its symbolism which was fulfilled in the death of Christ. The faithful become spectators rather than participants. With the articulation of transubstantiation the elevation of the host and the chalice took on special significance (Wegman 1985, p. 230). This in turn led to eucharistic processions for adoration of Christ.
Popular piety was frequently fed by accounts of eucharistic miracles. At the same time, Wegman notes the rise of parodies of the mass, as the general public reflected on the validity of the mass (Wegman 1985, p. 231). A doctrine of the eucharist can be grasped in outline in hymnody. Wegman produces a Latin and English version of St. Thomas Aquinas' hymn Adorate (Wegman 1985, pp. 232-233).
The practice of confession of sins continued in the middle ages. However, Wegman observes that penance came to involve acts drawn from a known list of exercises of different values (Wegman 1985, p. 233). The appropriate restorative acts could be done or, in some cases, the penitent person could pay the confessor an amount sufficient to evade the penalty.
Ordination liturgy did develop to some extent during the middle ages. Wegman describes the rites for ordination of priests, which remained relatively stable in the 12th - 16th centuries. In some rituals of ordination, Wegman finds an emphasis on reception into the hierarchical structure rather than on the appointment as a servant. The laity were not afforded participation in ordination rituals (Wegman 1985, p. 235).
Wegman closes the chapter with a brief survey of prayers for the sick and dying, as well as practices surrounding death (Wegman 1985, pp. 236-237). Human life is fragile, as recognized by medieval people especially. However, along with a frank recognition of death, Wegman sees the rituals surrounding marriage as of long standing elements of society. The church was active in consecrating marriages and recognizing them in its public services (Wegman 1985, p. 237). Though some cultural elements from paganism were retained, they were effectively stripped of their pagan connotations.
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