Friday Scholarly Notes
11/29/24
Bradshaw, Paul F. (2002). Chapter Five: Other Major Liturgical Sources." In The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy. (pages 98-117). Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
In this chapter, Bradshaw reviews important liturgical documents from various areas. His intention in this is to identify regional distinctives which may have existed at dates earlier than the extant documents (Bradshaw 2002, p. 98).
From Rome, Bradshaw considers the First Apology of Justin Martyr, dating to about 15, in which we have the "earliest substantial description of Chrsitian worship" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 98). In chapters 61-67 Justin provides a description of baptism, leading to eucharist, then an outline of a more regular Sunday service with the eucharist. Bradshaw notes that it is unclear whether Justin is describing practice in one congregation or in general principles which would be found in many communities. Further, the level of detail is rather vague, possibly due to variations in different congregations or due to a desire to make the explanation less complicated (Bradshaw 2002, p. 99). It is not clear, likewise, whether the eucharistic prayers are all at one time or separated, one for each element, and whether a full meal accompanies the eucharist. Sources other than Justin are scanty. Bradshae notes some reference in the Shepherd ofHermas, in Apostolic Tradition, then a letter of Innocent I (416), and sermons of Leo the Great (440-461) (Bradshaw 2002, p. 100).
In North Africa, there are some scattered references to liturgy from Tertullian, converted about 195 (Bradshaw 2002, p. 101). He began in opposition to Montanism, but later embraced it. Bradshaw considers it uncertain whether Tertullian was describing real or ideal practices. Cyprian of Carthage, bishop from 248-258, and Augustine of Hippo, bishop from 396-430 make some comments. Due to the later Arab conquest, there are no later liturgical sources from North Africa (Bradshaw 2002, p. 102).
Northern Italy does not have sources for liturgical information prior to Ambrose of Milan, about 339-97 (Bradshaw 2002, p. 102). Bradshaw considers his comments to be not very explicit. Other North Italian sources are Ambrose's contemporaries Chromatius, Gaudentius, and Zeno, then in the fifth century Maximus of Turin and Peter Chrysologus of Ravenna (Bradshaw 2002, p. 103).
Gaul and Spain have few sources prior to at least the fifth century, with the exception of Irenaeus of Lyons, from the late second century. Bradshaw considers this to provide little information (Bradshaw 2002, p. 103).
In Egypt, Bradshaw notes the writings of Clement of Alexandria and Origen, from the late second and early third centuries, whose references are difficult to evaluate (Bradshaw 2002, p. 103). Both Clement of Alexandria and Origen tend toward allegory and analogy, creating challenges in determining whether a text is to be taken literally (Bradshaw 2002, p. 104). There are few additional resources, and the two which are most likely, namely the Canons of Hippolytus and the Sacramentary of Serapion are of uncertain provenance (Bradshaw 2002, p. 104). Evaluation of the Strasbourg Papyrus 254, the Anaphora of St. Mark, and the Anaphora of St. Basil may or may not be helpful in considering Egyptian liturgy. Yet Bradshaw considers these to be also of uncertain provenance (Bradshaw 2002, p. 106).
Syrian liturgical works include the Didache, the Acts of John, the Acts of Thomas, and the Syriac Acts of John. These are difficult in that an original text is hard to establish (Bradshaw 2002, p. 107). While the practices may reflect a real tradition, they tend to be placed in the hands of apostolic figures, which calls the authenticity of the accounts into question. Bradshaw does consider John Chrysostom (c. 347-407) to be "a major source of the liturgy of Antioch" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 108). The Anaphora of the Twelve Apostles may be helpful, though its provenance is disputed. Theodore of Mopsuestia, active in Antioch and then in Mopsuestia from 383 onward composed homilies dealing with liturgical occasions, likely while in Antioch and definitely in Syria (Bradshaw 2002, p. 109). An element surrounded by debate is a reference to post-baptismal chrismation, which may be a later interpolation (Bradshaw 2002, p. 110). From East Syria, Bradshaw notes Sphraates, Ephrem, and Cyrillonus of Edessa from the fourth century, Narsai from the fifth century, and the Anaphora of the Apostles Addai and Mari (Bradshaw 2002, p. 110-111). He finally mentions in passing the Anaphora of Nestorius and the Anaphora of Theodore considered to be derived from works mentioned earlier (Bradshaw 2002, p. 112).
There is little early evidence for liturgical practice in Jerusalem. Further, by the time we see more information in the fourth or fifth century, Jerusalem had a history as a place of pilgrimage so the practice may well have been influenced by other regions (Bradshaw 2002, p. 113). Bradshaw recognizes the Catecheses of Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem from 350-387 to be useful, though unclear in provenance. The Pilgrimage of Egeria, a travel diary from the fourth century, may be of use, though incomplete (Bradshaw 2002, p. 115). Bradshaw further mentions the fifth century Armenian Lectionary and a late Georgian Lectionary, containing some liturgical rubrics (Bradshaw 2002, p. 116), as well as The liturgy of St. James, possibly developed from a liturgical core originating in Antioch and Jerusalem around the year 400. It is possible that this work was largely an adaptation of the liturgy of St. Basil (Bradshaw 2002, p. 117).
11/29/24
Bradshaw, Paul F. (2002). Chapter Five: Other Major Liturgical Sources." In The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy. (pages 98-117). Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
In this chapter, Bradshaw reviews important liturgical documents from various areas. His intention in this is to identify regional distinctives which may have existed at dates earlier than the extant documents (Bradshaw 2002, p. 98).
From Rome, Bradshaw considers the First Apology of Justin Martyr, dating to about 15, in which we have the "earliest substantial description of Chrsitian worship" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 98). In chapters 61-67 Justin provides a description of baptism, leading to eucharist, then an outline of a more regular Sunday service with the eucharist. Bradshaw notes that it is unclear whether Justin is describing practice in one congregation or in general principles which would be found in many communities. Further, the level of detail is rather vague, possibly due to variations in different congregations or due to a desire to make the explanation less complicated (Bradshaw 2002, p. 99). It is not clear, likewise, whether the eucharistic prayers are all at one time or separated, one for each element, and whether a full meal accompanies the eucharist. Sources other than Justin are scanty. Bradshae notes some reference in the Shepherd ofHermas, in Apostolic Tradition, then a letter of Innocent I (416), and sermons of Leo the Great (440-461) (Bradshaw 2002, p. 100).
In North Africa, there are some scattered references to liturgy from Tertullian, converted about 195 (Bradshaw 2002, p. 101). He began in opposition to Montanism, but later embraced it. Bradshaw considers it uncertain whether Tertullian was describing real or ideal practices. Cyprian of Carthage, bishop from 248-258, and Augustine of Hippo, bishop from 396-430 make some comments. Due to the later Arab conquest, there are no later liturgical sources from North Africa (Bradshaw 2002, p. 102).
Northern Italy does not have sources for liturgical information prior to Ambrose of Milan, about 339-97 (Bradshaw 2002, p. 102). Bradshaw considers his comments to be not very explicit. Other North Italian sources are Ambrose's contemporaries Chromatius, Gaudentius, and Zeno, then in the fifth century Maximus of Turin and Peter Chrysologus of Ravenna (Bradshaw 2002, p. 103).
Gaul and Spain have few sources prior to at least the fifth century, with the exception of Irenaeus of Lyons, from the late second century. Bradshaw considers this to provide little information (Bradshaw 2002, p. 103).
In Egypt, Bradshaw notes the writings of Clement of Alexandria and Origen, from the late second and early third centuries, whose references are difficult to evaluate (Bradshaw 2002, p. 103). Both Clement of Alexandria and Origen tend toward allegory and analogy, creating challenges in determining whether a text is to be taken literally (Bradshaw 2002, p. 104). There are few additional resources, and the two which are most likely, namely the Canons of Hippolytus and the Sacramentary of Serapion are of uncertain provenance (Bradshaw 2002, p. 104). Evaluation of the Strasbourg Papyrus 254, the Anaphora of St. Mark, and the Anaphora of St. Basil may or may not be helpful in considering Egyptian liturgy. Yet Bradshaw considers these to be also of uncertain provenance (Bradshaw 2002, p. 106).
Syrian liturgical works include the Didache, the Acts of John, the Acts of Thomas, and the Syriac Acts of John. These are difficult in that an original text is hard to establish (Bradshaw 2002, p. 107). While the practices may reflect a real tradition, they tend to be placed in the hands of apostolic figures, which calls the authenticity of the accounts into question. Bradshaw does consider John Chrysostom (c. 347-407) to be "a major source of the liturgy of Antioch" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 108). The Anaphora of the Twelve Apostles may be helpful, though its provenance is disputed. Theodore of Mopsuestia, active in Antioch and then in Mopsuestia from 383 onward composed homilies dealing with liturgical occasions, likely while in Antioch and definitely in Syria (Bradshaw 2002, p. 109). An element surrounded by debate is a reference to post-baptismal chrismation, which may be a later interpolation (Bradshaw 2002, p. 110). From East Syria, Bradshaw notes Sphraates, Ephrem, and Cyrillonus of Edessa from the fourth century, Narsai from the fifth century, and the Anaphora of the Apostles Addai and Mari (Bradshaw 2002, p. 110-111). He finally mentions in passing the Anaphora of Nestorius and the Anaphora of Theodore considered to be derived from works mentioned earlier (Bradshaw 2002, p. 112).
There is little early evidence for liturgical practice in Jerusalem. Further, by the time we see more information in the fourth or fifth century, Jerusalem had a history as a place of pilgrimage so the practice may well have been influenced by other regions (Bradshaw 2002, p. 113). Bradshaw recognizes the Catecheses of Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem from 350-387 to be useful, though unclear in provenance. The Pilgrimage of Egeria, a travel diary from the fourth century, may be of use, though incomplete (Bradshaw 2002, p. 115). Bradshaw further mentions the fifth century Armenian Lectionary and a late Georgian Lectionary, containing some liturgical rubrics (Bradshaw 2002, p. 116), as well as The liturgy of St. James, possibly developed from a liturgical core originating in Antioch and Jerusalem around the year 400. It is possible that this work was largely an adaptation of the liturgy of St. Basil (Bradshaw 2002, p. 117).
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