Friday Scholarly Notes
11/15/24
Bradshaw, Paul F. (2002). Chapter Three: Worship in the New Testament." In The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy. (pages 47-72). Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
In this chapter, Bradshaw observes that there are various different tendencies which have emerged in research over the past 50 years.While the various studies are too numerous to detail, the trends can be identified (Bradshaw 2002, p. 47).
Some scholars show "a tendency to see signs of liturgy everywhere" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 47). The predisposition to "panliturgism" seeks out seeds of later liturgy in earlier works. For instance, Bradshaw notes that some scholars have tried to find an influence of Jewish lectionaries behind the arrangement of narrative material in the canonical Gospels, making them fit into Sabbath lectionary systems (Bradshaw 2002, p. 48). Others have taken part or all of different epistles as not only addressing specific situations in local churches but also as intended for public reading in conjunction with a particular season (Bradshaw 2002, p. 49). Still others have sought to describe Christian practice as either inextricably tied to Jewish practice or completely divergent from it. Several scholars have proposed different New Testament works as intended for baptismal catechesis (Bradshaw 2002, p. 50).
Bradshaw observes, "Many conclusions about worship in the New Testament - including some of those listed above - are arrived at only by assuming that liturgical customs found in later centuries must have been in continuous existence from the first century (Bradshaw 2002, p. 51). He questions the validity of such an assertion when the New Testament does not clearly introduce a liturgical custom. There are some elements of liturgy which can be documented to extend back to the New Testament, and others which can be shown to be highly unlikely. As an example, Bradshaw notes the paschal and baptismal liturgy being tied directly to the Apocalypse.
The lack of comprehensive evidence of New Testament worship has led some scholars to attempt assembly of scraps of information into a comprehensive picture (Bradshaw 2002, p. 52). This can be done based on a presupposition of uniformity in worship practices. If the later diversity in practices do not represent a fragmentation of one archetype, but rather the extension of diverse forms of worship, attempts at harmonization will not be accurate.
One challenge noted by Bradshaw is that most of the New Testament descriptions of Christian worship are in Acts (Bradshaw 2002, p. 53). While these depictions are clear as far as they go, Bradshaw is uncertain that they are normative or can legitimately be generalized. They may tell us more about the author's experience but relatively little about practices in various locations or of what would be typical in repeated instances, for example, the baptism of a household or individual (Bradshaw 2002, p. 54). A common question regarding New TEstament worship is the role of laying on of hands in ceremonial contexts (Bradshaw 2002, p. 55). The ritual function is simply not clear.
Bradshaw observes that the Epistles in particular make possible allusion to liturgy, but relatively few specific descriptions of ritual (Bradshaw 2002, p. 56). Mentions of the Passover, of washing, of changing clothing, or being sealed in some way may refer to particular liturgical events or they may be metaphorical in nature.
Research into specific materials considered as hymns or liturgical statements has received much attention in recent decades (Bradshaw 2002, p. 57). Bradshaw references several of the more commonly cited passages. Bradshaw notes the difficulty of identifying passages which are inserted into text as a piece of liturgy as opposed to material which is simply poetic in nature (Bradshaw 2002, p. 58). It is also unclear whether the passages are hymns or prayers. It is clear to Bradshaw (and others) that there were recognizable liturgical elements. What they were and how they functioned is something about which we have limited insight.
While it is normally agreed upon that Chrsitian baptism is derived from the work of John the Baptist, Bradshaw notes the origin of his work is unclear. The Qumran community had numerous ceremonial washings but not one which would be seen as an initiation into the community (Bradshaw 2002, p. 59). A washing for converts to Judaism is known from a later time, but cannot be traced to the early first century. Washings for ritual purification are known, but not necessarily for initiation (Bradshaw 2002, p. 60). Bradshaw questions the authenticity of the trinitarian formula in Matthew 28:16-20. He also observes that only in John's gospel is Jesus depicted as baptizing people. Regardless of the doubts about roots of a baptismal ritual, Bradshaw sees it as being a normative practice for Christian initiation from a very early date (Bradshaw 2002, p. 60). There were a number of different interpretations of the primary emphasis of baptism, whether it is on forgiveness, the reception of the Holy Spirit, new birth, enlightenment, or union with Christ (Bradshaw 2002, p. 61). The diversity of interpretations of the same ritual act may be important to our understanding of early Christianity.
The relation of the Last Supper and the Lord's Supper is an important area of consideration, along with an understanding of the accuracy of the accounts which are presented in Scripture (Bradshaw 2002, p. 61). Bradshaw notes a diversity of opinion regarding the actual historical liturgical practices, including the institution narrative (Bradshaw 2002, p. 62). It is unclear, in Bradshaw's opinion, whether the institution narrative was commonly used liturgically prior to the fourth century, though it was clearly used in catechesis.
The relation of the Passover and the Last Supper is a contentious matter as well. Bradshaw notes the root issue is the timing. The Fourth Gospel presents the Last Supper as before Passover, thus having Jesus die at the time of the death of the sacrificial lambs (Bradshaw 2002, p. 63). Some suggest a difference in calendars in use in the culture or that there are adjustments made for theological purposes. Others consider the Last Supper simply to be not a Passover meal. Bradshaw briefly explores Essene customs of celebratory thanksgiving meals (Bradshaw 2002, p. 64-65).
The concept of a distinction between the Eucharist and the fellowship meal was developed in the late 19th century by Friedrich Spitta and developed further by Lietzmann (Bradshaw 2002, p. 65). Bradshaw describes the development of these theories in some detail.
In recent scholarship, Bradshaw finds two important approaches to the Lord's supper. In one, scholars compare it with formal meals, particularly the symposion, featuring a meal followed by drinking wine and engaging in discussion. In the other, scholars evaluate the eucharist in the context of other meals described in the New TEstament, particularly involving Jesus (Bradshaw 2002, p. 68). This results in an emphasis on diversity of practices, rather than an identification of one overarching practice. These emphases tend to include attempts at explaining the order of wine then bread, as found in Luke 22:15-19 and 1 Corinthians 10L16, along with the Didache chapters 9-10 69). Bradshaw discusses the work of Andrew McGowan at some length, particularly in his evaluation of the cup-bread order in Didache, in Papias, and in Hippolytus. He also considers the insistence of Irenaus, Clement, and others that wine be used as evidence that there were significant moves to the use of bread and water (Bradshaw 2002, p. 69).
Bradshaw considers it to be "worth asking the question as to whether the Eucharist ever conformed to the pattern presented in the New Testament narratives of the Last Supper, in which the bread and cup rituals were separated by the meal" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 70, emphasis his). The inference can be made from the New Testament, but it is unclear whether this was a prescriptive pattern. It is altogether possible, in Bradshaw's estimation, that Chrsitians considered all ritual meals to be a commemoration of Jesus, regardless of the form the actual meal took (Bradshaw 2002, p. 71).
11/15/24
Bradshaw, Paul F. (2002). Chapter Three: Worship in the New Testament." In The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy. (pages 47-72). Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
In this chapter, Bradshaw observes that there are various different tendencies which have emerged in research over the past 50 years.While the various studies are too numerous to detail, the trends can be identified (Bradshaw 2002, p. 47).
Some scholars show "a tendency to see signs of liturgy everywhere" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 47). The predisposition to "panliturgism" seeks out seeds of later liturgy in earlier works. For instance, Bradshaw notes that some scholars have tried to find an influence of Jewish lectionaries behind the arrangement of narrative material in the canonical Gospels, making them fit into Sabbath lectionary systems (Bradshaw 2002, p. 48). Others have taken part or all of different epistles as not only addressing specific situations in local churches but also as intended for public reading in conjunction with a particular season (Bradshaw 2002, p. 49). Still others have sought to describe Christian practice as either inextricably tied to Jewish practice or completely divergent from it. Several scholars have proposed different New Testament works as intended for baptismal catechesis (Bradshaw 2002, p. 50).
Bradshaw observes, "Many conclusions about worship in the New Testament - including some of those listed above - are arrived at only by assuming that liturgical customs found in later centuries must have been in continuous existence from the first century (Bradshaw 2002, p. 51). He questions the validity of such an assertion when the New Testament does not clearly introduce a liturgical custom. There are some elements of liturgy which can be documented to extend back to the New Testament, and others which can be shown to be highly unlikely. As an example, Bradshaw notes the paschal and baptismal liturgy being tied directly to the Apocalypse.
The lack of comprehensive evidence of New Testament worship has led some scholars to attempt assembly of scraps of information into a comprehensive picture (Bradshaw 2002, p. 52). This can be done based on a presupposition of uniformity in worship practices. If the later diversity in practices do not represent a fragmentation of one archetype, but rather the extension of diverse forms of worship, attempts at harmonization will not be accurate.
One challenge noted by Bradshaw is that most of the New Testament descriptions of Christian worship are in Acts (Bradshaw 2002, p. 53). While these depictions are clear as far as they go, Bradshaw is uncertain that they are normative or can legitimately be generalized. They may tell us more about the author's experience but relatively little about practices in various locations or of what would be typical in repeated instances, for example, the baptism of a household or individual (Bradshaw 2002, p. 54). A common question regarding New TEstament worship is the role of laying on of hands in ceremonial contexts (Bradshaw 2002, p. 55). The ritual function is simply not clear.
Bradshaw observes that the Epistles in particular make possible allusion to liturgy, but relatively few specific descriptions of ritual (Bradshaw 2002, p. 56). Mentions of the Passover, of washing, of changing clothing, or being sealed in some way may refer to particular liturgical events or they may be metaphorical in nature.
Research into specific materials considered as hymns or liturgical statements has received much attention in recent decades (Bradshaw 2002, p. 57). Bradshaw references several of the more commonly cited passages. Bradshaw notes the difficulty of identifying passages which are inserted into text as a piece of liturgy as opposed to material which is simply poetic in nature (Bradshaw 2002, p. 58). It is also unclear whether the passages are hymns or prayers. It is clear to Bradshaw (and others) that there were recognizable liturgical elements. What they were and how they functioned is something about which we have limited insight.
While it is normally agreed upon that Chrsitian baptism is derived from the work of John the Baptist, Bradshaw notes the origin of his work is unclear. The Qumran community had numerous ceremonial washings but not one which would be seen as an initiation into the community (Bradshaw 2002, p. 59). A washing for converts to Judaism is known from a later time, but cannot be traced to the early first century. Washings for ritual purification are known, but not necessarily for initiation (Bradshaw 2002, p. 60). Bradshaw questions the authenticity of the trinitarian formula in Matthew 28:16-20. He also observes that only in John's gospel is Jesus depicted as baptizing people. Regardless of the doubts about roots of a baptismal ritual, Bradshaw sees it as being a normative practice for Christian initiation from a very early date (Bradshaw 2002, p. 60). There were a number of different interpretations of the primary emphasis of baptism, whether it is on forgiveness, the reception of the Holy Spirit, new birth, enlightenment, or union with Christ (Bradshaw 2002, p. 61). The diversity of interpretations of the same ritual act may be important to our understanding of early Christianity.
The relation of the Last Supper and the Lord's Supper is an important area of consideration, along with an understanding of the accuracy of the accounts which are presented in Scripture (Bradshaw 2002, p. 61). Bradshaw notes a diversity of opinion regarding the actual historical liturgical practices, including the institution narrative (Bradshaw 2002, p. 62). It is unclear, in Bradshaw's opinion, whether the institution narrative was commonly used liturgically prior to the fourth century, though it was clearly used in catechesis.
The relation of the Passover and the Last Supper is a contentious matter as well. Bradshaw notes the root issue is the timing. The Fourth Gospel presents the Last Supper as before Passover, thus having Jesus die at the time of the death of the sacrificial lambs (Bradshaw 2002, p. 63). Some suggest a difference in calendars in use in the culture or that there are adjustments made for theological purposes. Others consider the Last Supper simply to be not a Passover meal. Bradshaw briefly explores Essene customs of celebratory thanksgiving meals (Bradshaw 2002, p. 64-65).
The concept of a distinction between the Eucharist and the fellowship meal was developed in the late 19th century by Friedrich Spitta and developed further by Lietzmann (Bradshaw 2002, p. 65). Bradshaw describes the development of these theories in some detail.
In recent scholarship, Bradshaw finds two important approaches to the Lord's supper. In one, scholars compare it with formal meals, particularly the symposion, featuring a meal followed by drinking wine and engaging in discussion. In the other, scholars evaluate the eucharist in the context of other meals described in the New TEstament, particularly involving Jesus (Bradshaw 2002, p. 68). This results in an emphasis on diversity of practices, rather than an identification of one overarching practice. These emphases tend to include attempts at explaining the order of wine then bread, as found in Luke 22:15-19 and 1 Corinthians 10L16, along with the Didache chapters 9-10 69). Bradshaw discusses the work of Andrew McGowan at some length, particularly in his evaluation of the cup-bread order in Didache, in Papias, and in Hippolytus. He also considers the insistence of Irenaus, Clement, and others that wine be used as evidence that there were significant moves to the use of bread and water (Bradshaw 2002, p. 69).
Bradshaw considers it to be "worth asking the question as to whether the Eucharist ever conformed to the pattern presented in the New Testament narratives of the Last Supper, in which the bread and cup rituals were separated by the meal" (Bradshaw 2002, p. 70, emphasis his). The inference can be made from the New Testament, but it is unclear whether this was a prescriptive pattern. It is altogether possible, in Bradshaw's estimation, that Chrsitians considered all ritual meals to be a commemoration of Jesus, regardless of the form the actual meal took (Bradshaw 2002, p. 71).
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