Tuesday Lectio
1/21/25
Wegman, Herman A.J. (1985). (Original Dutch, 1976). 'Chapter Two: Worship in the Church of the Empire (312-600)." In Christian Worship in East and West: A Study Guide to Liturgical History. (pp. 52-142). (Translated by Gordon W. Lathrop). New York: Pueblo Publishing Company. (Personal Library)
Wegman in this chapter intends to lay facts from East and West side by side for comparison. He acknowledges the mass of information to be presented, as well as the fact that his evaluation is necessarily incomplete (Wegman 1985, p. 52). With the rise of Constantine in 312 and the Edict of Milan in 313, the church gained a legal recognition and some societal benefits (Wegman 1985, p. 53). Christianity thus took on social roles it had never held before, and drew many people in. At the same time, the nature of the Christian life of many congregants became less distinctively aligned with orthodoxy (Wegman 1985, p. 54).
The period was characterized by barbarian invasions and assaults, particularly by forces from Mongolia and China (Wegman 1985, p. 55). The eventual Gothic invasions began a wave of additional moves which pushed Romanized people out of Italy, then eventually moved migrations throughout Europe, blending various cultures and leaving Christianity as the sole stable institution (Wegman 1985, p. 56). Webman observes that theological discussion which sought a unified understanding of Christianity became important to attempts at unity, as did the growth of monasticism and rigorous Christian communities (Wegman 1985, p. 56).
In the eastern Roman empire there was an ongoing struggle to identify the way in which Christianity could be expressed. Wegman briefly describes substantive disputes involving liturgical and cultural differences, many highlighting different assumptions about the meaning of the term "eastern" (Wegman 1985, p. 58). Eventually the Byzantine empire arose to prominence within the region, thanks to wealth, history, and strength of armed forces (Wegman 1985, p. 59). On the theological front, Hellenistic thought patterns were applied to Christianity, resulting in an "accent on contemplation, on theoria, a living vision" (Wegman 1985, p. 61). Eastern monasticism developed a lifestyle of constant prayer and meditation, seeking timeless solitude (Wegman 1985, p. 62).
Wegman notes the rise of Islam after the birth of Mohammed in 570 provoked a time of conquest which subjugated much of the area which had been Christian, leaving only limited pockets of Christianity (Wegman 1985, p. 63).
Wegman recognizes the close relationship of Christianity and western civilization from its foundations in the fourth and fifth centuries (Wegman 1985, p. 64). Implicit in the growth of western civilization is a biblical idiom which provides a framework to understand all things. Wegman sees biblical symbolism pervading art, literature, architecture, and, in short, all areas of life. Education shifted from the realm of teachers of philosophy and rhetoric to the domain of monks and clerics (Wegman 1985, p. 65). Latin became the lingua franca, with frequent neologisms from koine Greek, growing into a distinctive liturgical Latin dialect (Wegman 1985, p. 66).
During this period, Wegman sees a growth of liturgical orders and texts. Judaism continued to influence Christian liturgy, but the forms adapted from Jewish liturgy came to be recognized as simply Christian as opposed to being "Jewish Christian" (Wegman 1985, p. 70). While Wegman considers liturgical development to be extensive, he notes we have "few complete orders of service and actual texts" (Wegman 1985, p. 71). There are, however, comments from Augustine and from numerous councils about multiplication of liturgical forms and prayers. Wegman references many additional sources from the period, but is clear that there are indirect references to liturgical practices (Wegman 1985, pp. 72-74). There are a number of direct sources in the form of Sacramentaria, containing prayers and outlines for various days of the year, as well as several lectionaries (Wegman 1985, pp. 74-76). These are not as complete as we might like, and tend to have greater applicability to local situations than as universal handbooks.
The liturgy in use in Jerusalem in the fourth and fifth centuries did provide an important model for Christian worship in that there was an organizational pattern for daily prayer, for festivals in the year, and for initiation rituals (Wegman 1985, p. 76-77). Wegman reviews the remains of the ideas and their apparent propagation in turn. Daily prayers centered around singing of Psalms at various hours of the day, as Wegman illustrates using the travels of Egeria as a source (Wegman 1985, pp. 78-79). Egeria's description of annual festivals is in close correspondence with the Armenian Lectionary, which shows a developed pericope system at the start of the 5th century (Wegman 1985, p. 79). Egeria also discusses the pattern of baptism, chrismation, and eucharist as the initiation of Christians (Wegman 1985, p. 80). Wegman describes the pattern in detail, drawing on Egeria and on Cyril of Jerusalem, as well as the anaphora of James (Wegman 1985, pp. 81-85).
Again, drawing heavily on the testimony of Egeria, Wegman describes monks participating in communal worship, thus not being separated from the assembly of Christians (Wegman 1985, p. 85). This is a natural outgrowth of the fourth century move toward monastic community rather than isolation (Wegman 1985, p. 86). The involvement of monastic communities within local congregations also brought a greater emphasis on personal piety, on preserving times for prayer, and on more repeated use of Scripture in worship (Wegman 1985, p. 87).
During this period from about 300-600 AD, Wegman observes a gradual distinction growing between eastern and western churches, at the same time that practices within the regions tended to regularize (Wegman 1985, p. 88). Habits and customs in the East took on a particular pattern, as did those in the West. East and West could generally be identified as such. While the East could be identified as associated with the various patriarchates, the West was associated with Rome as the pre-eminent see (Wegman 1985, p. 91).
Wegman briefly describes the actual church buildings which we start to see in the fifth century (Wegman 1985, p. 94). While relatively plain from the outside, the basilicas were richly ornamented inside, generally with a longitudinal orientation rather than the later rotundas.
Daily prayer normally centered around morning and evening prayers, in which there was a broad expectation of participation. Preferably people would gather to pray in the church building, though some would worship at home (Wegman 1985, p. 95). Routines grew, generally around psalms, prayers of intercession, and the Lord's prayer. Accretions such as singing hymns and reading other texts grew gradually. Monastic orders typically added other gatherings, eventually becoming the daily offices now known (Wegman 1985, p. 96). The structures and growth were similar in East and West. However, in the West the monastic orders tended to separate from the congregations more than in the East.
Wegman describes the ongoing growth of the church year, beginning from observation of the first day of the week as the day of resurrection (Wegman 1985, p. 98). The passion celebration (Easter) typically held to the earlier emphasis on Jesus' move through death into his glorification (Wegman 1985, p. 99). Preparation for Easter, in the time of Lent, grew in length and prominence. The growth to forty days excluding some particular days appeared, though it was developed differently in the East than it was in the West (Wegman 1985, p. 102). At this time in Rome the custom of recognizing "stations of the cross" developed, creating a gradual procession to the time of Easter.
The development of Christmas and Epiphany as separate celebrations, preceded by Advent, grew during this time period as well. December 25 was recognized as the birth of Christ by the year 330 (Wegman 1985, p. 103). Wegman does observe the very early question whether December 25 or January 6 was the proper day to recognize Jesus' birth (Wegman 1985, p. 104).
Recognition of the dead became an increasingly prominent theme during this period. Wegman notes that Christianity adopted numerous pagan customs such as decorating tombs with flowers, having open air meals in honor of the dead, and inscribing memorial stones (Wegman 1985, pp. 105-106). A purely Christian custom was to remember a person on the anniversary of his death, rather than of his birth (Wegman 1985, p. 106). Calendars of the death dates of martyrs developed, as memorials moved beyond the locale of the martyrs' deaths (Wegman 1985, p. 107).
Between 300 and 600 AD, baptism and confirmation took on a broader cultural significance. Not only was it recognized as initiation into the Church, but also as a means of recognition in society (Wegman 1985, p. 107). Wegman observes that this process was often interrupted, as people would associate with Christianity but only to the extent which would make them socially acceptable (Wegman 1985, p. 108). Some would convert outright, be examined in the faith, and follow through with a Christian life, while others would not. The ritual surrounding baptism became more extensive and complex, as witnessed by a number of authors in their mystagogical lectures (Wegman 1985, pp. 110-111).
Wegman observes that the eucharistic celebration grew in intricacy between 300 and 600 AD. The outline of events is recorded in a variety of places and times. The prayers in use at different times and places also reveal significant details about the understanding of the eucharist (Wegman 1985, pp. 112-120). The various actions and words used in the eucharist point increasingly directly at the sacrificial work of Jesus on behalf of his people. The central structure remained consistent.
In a eucharistic service, Wegman notes the presence of biblical readings, often including an Old Testament passage, and always including two New
testament passages, one of which is from a gospel reading (Wegman 1985, p. 121). A homily would be presented after the gospel reading. Lectio continua would be normal at regular prayer services, but eucharistic services seem to have a system of pericopes, which tended to regularize across congregations, but followed different patterns in East and West.
The eucharistic prayer itself called an "anaphora" in the East, developed in different forms in the East and the West. Wegman describes essential elements of the prayers in detail (Wegman 1985, pp. 125ff). Prominent in Wegman's summary is a reconstruction of what became the official Roman canon, in parallel Latin and English columns (Wegman 1985, pp. 133-136). The concepts of Christ as the offering who provides forgiveness and reconciliation are prominent in these anaphoras (Wegman 1985, p. 136).
Reconciliation in the form of a return to a life of repentance after falling into sin was a significant issue in this time period. Wegman notes it was considered as something which could be done only once in life, so was often put off as long as possible. The process of demonstrating penitence was lengthy and difficult (Wegman 1985, pp. 137-138).
Ordination as clergy in about 300-600 AD took on very recognizable ritual forms, with a formal imposition of hands and prayer (Wegman 1985, p. 138). The consecration was performed by one or more bishops, who would set the man apart for ministry. Prayers would be used to place the ordinand into the intended ministry post, regularly in a particular hierarchical position (Wegman 1985, p. 140).
Wegman finally notes briefly that the 4th to 7th centuries also saw the rise of particular rites for Christian marriage (Wegman 1985, p. 142). These regularly included some ritual elements known to the pagan society, but applied to the Christian as well.
1/21/25
Wegman, Herman A.J. (1985). (Original Dutch, 1976). 'Chapter Two: Worship in the Church of the Empire (312-600)." In Christian Worship in East and West: A Study Guide to Liturgical History. (pp. 52-142). (Translated by Gordon W. Lathrop). New York: Pueblo Publishing Company. (Personal Library)
Wegman in this chapter intends to lay facts from East and West side by side for comparison. He acknowledges the mass of information to be presented, as well as the fact that his evaluation is necessarily incomplete (Wegman 1985, p. 52). With the rise of Constantine in 312 and the Edict of Milan in 313, the church gained a legal recognition and some societal benefits (Wegman 1985, p. 53). Christianity thus took on social roles it had never held before, and drew many people in. At the same time, the nature of the Christian life of many congregants became less distinctively aligned with orthodoxy (Wegman 1985, p. 54).
The period was characterized by barbarian invasions and assaults, particularly by forces from Mongolia and China (Wegman 1985, p. 55). The eventual Gothic invasions began a wave of additional moves which pushed Romanized people out of Italy, then eventually moved migrations throughout Europe, blending various cultures and leaving Christianity as the sole stable institution (Wegman 1985, p. 56). Webman observes that theological discussion which sought a unified understanding of Christianity became important to attempts at unity, as did the growth of monasticism and rigorous Christian communities (Wegman 1985, p. 56).
In the eastern Roman empire there was an ongoing struggle to identify the way in which Christianity could be expressed. Wegman briefly describes substantive disputes involving liturgical and cultural differences, many highlighting different assumptions about the meaning of the term "eastern" (Wegman 1985, p. 58). Eventually the Byzantine empire arose to prominence within the region, thanks to wealth, history, and strength of armed forces (Wegman 1985, p. 59). On the theological front, Hellenistic thought patterns were applied to Christianity, resulting in an "accent on contemplation, on theoria, a living vision" (Wegman 1985, p. 61). Eastern monasticism developed a lifestyle of constant prayer and meditation, seeking timeless solitude (Wegman 1985, p. 62).
Wegman notes the rise of Islam after the birth of Mohammed in 570 provoked a time of conquest which subjugated much of the area which had been Christian, leaving only limited pockets of Christianity (Wegman 1985, p. 63).
Wegman recognizes the close relationship of Christianity and western civilization from its foundations in the fourth and fifth centuries (Wegman 1985, p. 64). Implicit in the growth of western civilization is a biblical idiom which provides a framework to understand all things. Wegman sees biblical symbolism pervading art, literature, architecture, and, in short, all areas of life. Education shifted from the realm of teachers of philosophy and rhetoric to the domain of monks and clerics (Wegman 1985, p. 65). Latin became the lingua franca, with frequent neologisms from koine Greek, growing into a distinctive liturgical Latin dialect (Wegman 1985, p. 66).
During this period, Wegman sees a growth of liturgical orders and texts. Judaism continued to influence Christian liturgy, but the forms adapted from Jewish liturgy came to be recognized as simply Christian as opposed to being "Jewish Christian" (Wegman 1985, p. 70). While Wegman considers liturgical development to be extensive, he notes we have "few complete orders of service and actual texts" (Wegman 1985, p. 71). There are, however, comments from Augustine and from numerous councils about multiplication of liturgical forms and prayers. Wegman references many additional sources from the period, but is clear that there are indirect references to liturgical practices (Wegman 1985, pp. 72-74). There are a number of direct sources in the form of Sacramentaria, containing prayers and outlines for various days of the year, as well as several lectionaries (Wegman 1985, pp. 74-76). These are not as complete as we might like, and tend to have greater applicability to local situations than as universal handbooks.
The liturgy in use in Jerusalem in the fourth and fifth centuries did provide an important model for Christian worship in that there was an organizational pattern for daily prayer, for festivals in the year, and for initiation rituals (Wegman 1985, p. 76-77). Wegman reviews the remains of the ideas and their apparent propagation in turn. Daily prayers centered around singing of Psalms at various hours of the day, as Wegman illustrates using the travels of Egeria as a source (Wegman 1985, pp. 78-79). Egeria's description of annual festivals is in close correspondence with the Armenian Lectionary, which shows a developed pericope system at the start of the 5th century (Wegman 1985, p. 79). Egeria also discusses the pattern of baptism, chrismation, and eucharist as the initiation of Christians (Wegman 1985, p. 80). Wegman describes the pattern in detail, drawing on Egeria and on Cyril of Jerusalem, as well as the anaphora of James (Wegman 1985, pp. 81-85).
Again, drawing heavily on the testimony of Egeria, Wegman describes monks participating in communal worship, thus not being separated from the assembly of Christians (Wegman 1985, p. 85). This is a natural outgrowth of the fourth century move toward monastic community rather than isolation (Wegman 1985, p. 86). The involvement of monastic communities within local congregations also brought a greater emphasis on personal piety, on preserving times for prayer, and on more repeated use of Scripture in worship (Wegman 1985, p. 87).
During this period from about 300-600 AD, Wegman observes a gradual distinction growing between eastern and western churches, at the same time that practices within the regions tended to regularize (Wegman 1985, p. 88). Habits and customs in the East took on a particular pattern, as did those in the West. East and West could generally be identified as such. While the East could be identified as associated with the various patriarchates, the West was associated with Rome as the pre-eminent see (Wegman 1985, p. 91).
Wegman briefly describes the actual church buildings which we start to see in the fifth century (Wegman 1985, p. 94). While relatively plain from the outside, the basilicas were richly ornamented inside, generally with a longitudinal orientation rather than the later rotundas.
Daily prayer normally centered around morning and evening prayers, in which there was a broad expectation of participation. Preferably people would gather to pray in the church building, though some would worship at home (Wegman 1985, p. 95). Routines grew, generally around psalms, prayers of intercession, and the Lord's prayer. Accretions such as singing hymns and reading other texts grew gradually. Monastic orders typically added other gatherings, eventually becoming the daily offices now known (Wegman 1985, p. 96). The structures and growth were similar in East and West. However, in the West the monastic orders tended to separate from the congregations more than in the East.
Wegman describes the ongoing growth of the church year, beginning from observation of the first day of the week as the day of resurrection (Wegman 1985, p. 98). The passion celebration (Easter) typically held to the earlier emphasis on Jesus' move through death into his glorification (Wegman 1985, p. 99). Preparation for Easter, in the time of Lent, grew in length and prominence. The growth to forty days excluding some particular days appeared, though it was developed differently in the East than it was in the West (Wegman 1985, p. 102). At this time in Rome the custom of recognizing "stations of the cross" developed, creating a gradual procession to the time of Easter.
The development of Christmas and Epiphany as separate celebrations, preceded by Advent, grew during this time period as well. December 25 was recognized as the birth of Christ by the year 330 (Wegman 1985, p. 103). Wegman does observe the very early question whether December 25 or January 6 was the proper day to recognize Jesus' birth (Wegman 1985, p. 104).
Recognition of the dead became an increasingly prominent theme during this period. Wegman notes that Christianity adopted numerous pagan customs such as decorating tombs with flowers, having open air meals in honor of the dead, and inscribing memorial stones (Wegman 1985, pp. 105-106). A purely Christian custom was to remember a person on the anniversary of his death, rather than of his birth (Wegman 1985, p. 106). Calendars of the death dates of martyrs developed, as memorials moved beyond the locale of the martyrs' deaths (Wegman 1985, p. 107).
Between 300 and 600 AD, baptism and confirmation took on a broader cultural significance. Not only was it recognized as initiation into the Church, but also as a means of recognition in society (Wegman 1985, p. 107). Wegman observes that this process was often interrupted, as people would associate with Christianity but only to the extent which would make them socially acceptable (Wegman 1985, p. 108). Some would convert outright, be examined in the faith, and follow through with a Christian life, while others would not. The ritual surrounding baptism became more extensive and complex, as witnessed by a number of authors in their mystagogical lectures (Wegman 1985, pp. 110-111).
Wegman observes that the eucharistic celebration grew in intricacy between 300 and 600 AD. The outline of events is recorded in a variety of places and times. The prayers in use at different times and places also reveal significant details about the understanding of the eucharist (Wegman 1985, pp. 112-120). The various actions and words used in the eucharist point increasingly directly at the sacrificial work of Jesus on behalf of his people. The central structure remained consistent.
In a eucharistic service, Wegman notes the presence of biblical readings, often including an Old Testament passage, and always including two New
testament passages, one of which is from a gospel reading (Wegman 1985, p. 121). A homily would be presented after the gospel reading. Lectio continua would be normal at regular prayer services, but eucharistic services seem to have a system of pericopes, which tended to regularize across congregations, but followed different patterns in East and West.
The eucharistic prayer itself called an "anaphora" in the East, developed in different forms in the East and the West. Wegman describes essential elements of the prayers in detail (Wegman 1985, pp. 125ff). Prominent in Wegman's summary is a reconstruction of what became the official Roman canon, in parallel Latin and English columns (Wegman 1985, pp. 133-136). The concepts of Christ as the offering who provides forgiveness and reconciliation are prominent in these anaphoras (Wegman 1985, p. 136).
Reconciliation in the form of a return to a life of repentance after falling into sin was a significant issue in this time period. Wegman notes it was considered as something which could be done only once in life, so was often put off as long as possible. The process of demonstrating penitence was lengthy and difficult (Wegman 1985, pp. 137-138).
Ordination as clergy in about 300-600 AD took on very recognizable ritual forms, with a formal imposition of hands and prayer (Wegman 1985, p. 138). The consecration was performed by one or more bishops, who would set the man apart for ministry. Prayers would be used to place the ordinand into the intended ministry post, regularly in a particular hierarchical position (Wegman 1985, p. 140).
Wegman finally notes briefly that the 4th to 7th centuries also saw the rise of particular rites for Christian marriage (Wegman 1985, p. 142). These regularly included some ritual elements known to the pagan society, but applied to the Christian as well.
RSS Feed