Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
3/26/24
Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twelve: Kings." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. (pp. 211-230). St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House.
The narrative in Kings covers the time from the end of King David's life to the fall of the southern kingdom of Judah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 211). The works are considered as one book in the Talmud, which ascribes authorship to Jeremiah. The Septuagint divided it based on the amount of writing which would fit on a standard scroll.
Scholarly opinion of authorship suggests "that Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings were composed by someone who was heavily influenced by the book of Deuteronomy" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 211). The text contains transitions which include speeches and summaries similar to those used in Deuteronomy. While some models assert one author, others see multiple (normally three) layers of redaction (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 212). The last event recorded is the release of Jehoiachin from prison, which can be dated in 560 BC. The lack of any mention of a return to Jerusalem places the work almost certainly before 538 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 212). Lessing and Steinmann observe there are several Greek insertions of narrative which is not included in Hebrew texts.
Lessing and Steinmann note the use of chronological markers in Kings as a striking literary feature (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 212). The careful cataloging of the kings of Israel and Judah with notes of the regnal years of each at the time of the start and end of the reign is an important tool which allows for clear chronology. Numerous details of reigns are also tracked for both north and south (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 213).
Kings draws upon written sources, referring specifically to three sources (which are no longer extant) and very likely a number of other stable sources of information which are not identified (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 214).
Lessing and Steinmann note that there are a number of chronological challenges faced by scholars. The calendar year began in different months in Judah and Israel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 215). While Judah initially assumed the first year (partial on the calendar) as an accession year, then the first complete year as his first year, Israel initially assumed the first partial year to be the first year of the reign. During the time covered in Kings, Judah shifted to the non-accession-year reckoning, then back again. Israel, however, in the last decades, switched to accession-year reckoning. Further, Kings is not strictly chronological at all times. Lessing and Steinmann find that records from Mesopotamia and Egypt are of some assistance in clarifying dates. They provide a chronology with dates (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 215-216).
Solomon has been considered by some scholars as a fabrication. However, Lessing and Steinmann consider that there is adequate indirect evidence to assert the reality of his kingdom, similar in its described structure to other contemporary kingdoms (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 217). The location of Solomon's Jerusalem beneath modern Jerusalem makes excavation difficult, hence the lack of 10th century BC inscriptions. Kings has been documented as reliable in the case of numerous kings, so would be assumed reliable in the case of Solomon.
After the death of Solomon (before Tishri of 931), the kingdom was divided. Jeroboam ben Nebat ruled the northern portion, called Israel, while Rehoboam ruled Judah in the south (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 219). Jeroboam moved to consolidate his power by erecting temples and setting up golden calves to worship at Bethel and Dan. He further altered the religious calendar and appointed different priests. The succeeding kings of Israel are all evaluated as following in evil, with the exception of "Shallum, who ruled for just a month (2 Kgs 15:10-15)" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 219). Lessing and Steinmann note the rise of Canaanite fertility cults in the north as well.
Israel suffered from foreign attacks, primarily due to its geography (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 220). By the middle of the eighth century BC, Assyria egan to provoke instability in Israel. While Israel sought assistance from Egypt, it was not forthcoming. Israel's capital of Samaria fell to Shalmaneser V in 723 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 221). The Assyrians deported subject peoples and mixed them together in new locations so as to dilute their power.
Judah was more faithful to their historic faith than was Israel, and also, due to the Davidic line of succession, experienced more political stability (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 222). This does not mean that all was well, yet on average the reigns were longer and some of the rulers "are given qualified approval." Two, Hezekiah and Josiah, "receive unqualified approval" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 223).
After the Babylonian empire overthrew Assyria (612 BC), they staged four deportations against Judah (605, 598, 587, and 582). Babylon's policy of deportation took smaller numbers of subject people away, but focused on the ruling, skilled, and academic elites, thus stripping a territory of its wealth (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 224). Babylon typically razed cities and other land to the ground, leaving a wasteland.
As well as kings, prophets are important in the book of Kings (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 224). Many are noted in brief, while two, Elijah and Elisha, are discussed in more detail. Lessing and Steinmann observe that, though the descriptions overlap, the "prophet" is distinct from the "man of God" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 224). The prophet typically announces God's word, while the man of God performs powerful miracles. Elijah and Elishah have both functions. Numerous confrontations are described between the kings and the prophets. Lessing and Steinmann note that God's reign is more persistent than the reign of human kings (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 225).
Lessing and Steinmann note that several features found in Kings, such as the design of homes, altars, and shrines, have been identified by archaeologists (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 226). Various people and military actions are also documented in extrabiblical writings.
The monarchs of Israel and Judah routinely fall short of their goals. Compared to them, Lessing and Steinmann observe that Christ fulfilled all his stated goals (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 226). Jesus, then, is the actual faithful king, greater than the others. He is also described as greater than Solomon's temple (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 227).
Sin is seen in Kings through the repeated departure of rulers from God's commands (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 227). In the end, this leads both Israel and Judah into captivity. It is only by God's grace that God's people retain a promise of a ruler for the throne of David.
3/26/24
Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twelve: Kings." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. (pp. 211-230). St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House.
The narrative in Kings covers the time from the end of King David's life to the fall of the southern kingdom of Judah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 211). The works are considered as one book in the Talmud, which ascribes authorship to Jeremiah. The Septuagint divided it based on the amount of writing which would fit on a standard scroll.
Scholarly opinion of authorship suggests "that Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings were composed by someone who was heavily influenced by the book of Deuteronomy" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 211). The text contains transitions which include speeches and summaries similar to those used in Deuteronomy. While some models assert one author, others see multiple (normally three) layers of redaction (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 212). The last event recorded is the release of Jehoiachin from prison, which can be dated in 560 BC. The lack of any mention of a return to Jerusalem places the work almost certainly before 538 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 212). Lessing and Steinmann observe there are several Greek insertions of narrative which is not included in Hebrew texts.
Lessing and Steinmann note the use of chronological markers in Kings as a striking literary feature (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 212). The careful cataloging of the kings of Israel and Judah with notes of the regnal years of each at the time of the start and end of the reign is an important tool which allows for clear chronology. Numerous details of reigns are also tracked for both north and south (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 213).
Kings draws upon written sources, referring specifically to three sources (which are no longer extant) and very likely a number of other stable sources of information which are not identified (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 214).
Lessing and Steinmann note that there are a number of chronological challenges faced by scholars. The calendar year began in different months in Judah and Israel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 215). While Judah initially assumed the first year (partial on the calendar) as an accession year, then the first complete year as his first year, Israel initially assumed the first partial year to be the first year of the reign. During the time covered in Kings, Judah shifted to the non-accession-year reckoning, then back again. Israel, however, in the last decades, switched to accession-year reckoning. Further, Kings is not strictly chronological at all times. Lessing and Steinmann find that records from Mesopotamia and Egypt are of some assistance in clarifying dates. They provide a chronology with dates (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 215-216).
Solomon has been considered by some scholars as a fabrication. However, Lessing and Steinmann consider that there is adequate indirect evidence to assert the reality of his kingdom, similar in its described structure to other contemporary kingdoms (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 217). The location of Solomon's Jerusalem beneath modern Jerusalem makes excavation difficult, hence the lack of 10th century BC inscriptions. Kings has been documented as reliable in the case of numerous kings, so would be assumed reliable in the case of Solomon.
After the death of Solomon (before Tishri of 931), the kingdom was divided. Jeroboam ben Nebat ruled the northern portion, called Israel, while Rehoboam ruled Judah in the south (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 219). Jeroboam moved to consolidate his power by erecting temples and setting up golden calves to worship at Bethel and Dan. He further altered the religious calendar and appointed different priests. The succeeding kings of Israel are all evaluated as following in evil, with the exception of "Shallum, who ruled for just a month (2 Kgs 15:10-15)" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 219). Lessing and Steinmann note the rise of Canaanite fertility cults in the north as well.
Israel suffered from foreign attacks, primarily due to its geography (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 220). By the middle of the eighth century BC, Assyria egan to provoke instability in Israel. While Israel sought assistance from Egypt, it was not forthcoming. Israel's capital of Samaria fell to Shalmaneser V in 723 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 221). The Assyrians deported subject peoples and mixed them together in new locations so as to dilute their power.
Judah was more faithful to their historic faith than was Israel, and also, due to the Davidic line of succession, experienced more political stability (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 222). This does not mean that all was well, yet on average the reigns were longer and some of the rulers "are given qualified approval." Two, Hezekiah and Josiah, "receive unqualified approval" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 223).
After the Babylonian empire overthrew Assyria (612 BC), they staged four deportations against Judah (605, 598, 587, and 582). Babylon's policy of deportation took smaller numbers of subject people away, but focused on the ruling, skilled, and academic elites, thus stripping a territory of its wealth (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 224). Babylon typically razed cities and other land to the ground, leaving a wasteland.
As well as kings, prophets are important in the book of Kings (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 224). Many are noted in brief, while two, Elijah and Elisha, are discussed in more detail. Lessing and Steinmann observe that, though the descriptions overlap, the "prophet" is distinct from the "man of God" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 224). The prophet typically announces God's word, while the man of God performs powerful miracles. Elijah and Elishah have both functions. Numerous confrontations are described between the kings and the prophets. Lessing and Steinmann note that God's reign is more persistent than the reign of human kings (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 225).
Lessing and Steinmann note that several features found in Kings, such as the design of homes, altars, and shrines, have been identified by archaeologists (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 226). Various people and military actions are also documented in extrabiblical writings.
The monarchs of Israel and Judah routinely fall short of their goals. Compared to them, Lessing and Steinmann observe that Christ fulfilled all his stated goals (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 226). Jesus, then, is the actual faithful king, greater than the others. He is also described as greater than Solomon's temple (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 227).
Sin is seen in Kings through the repeated departure of rulers from God's commands (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 227). In the end, this leads both Israel and Judah into captivity. It is only by God's grace that God's people retain a promise of a ruler for the throne of David.
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