Category: Schaff 2014 - Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry

Sixtus - but probably not

3/30/2020

Mondays are for Church History
3/30/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 171. Sixtus of Rome, also referred to as Sextus, bishop of Rome from around 119-128. Schaff identifies him as the sith bishop of Rome. He is thought to be the “author of a remarkable collection of moral and religious maxims” (Schaff 2014, loc. 21366). However, Jerome considered the attribution of the writing spurious, belonging rather to a Pythagorean named Xystus (Schaff 2014, loc. 21375). Others have attributed the work to a Quintus Sextus who was a Stoic philosopher. The writing never mentions Christ, so it has often been considered unlikely that any Christian, particularly a bishop, would write it (Schaff 2014, loc. 21384). Schaff makes a number of quotations (in Latin) to illustrate the flower of these maxims.

Diognetus - A Shadowy Figure

3/23/2020

Mondays are for Church History
3/23/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 170. The Epistle to Diognetus.

After a fairly comprehensive bibliography, Schaff notes that this letter “was unknown in Christian literature until Henry Stephens, the learned publisher of Paris, issued it in Greek and Latin in 1592, under the name of Justin Martyr” (Schaff 2014, loc. 21324). Though there is considerable doubt about the provenance of the text, Schaff considers it to be a genuine second century document, brilliant in its composition.

The letter, addressed to Diognetius, describes Christianity, the reason why Christians can look on the world with contempt, face death with courage, and love one another (Schaff 2014, loc. 21331). Schaff suggests the recipient may have been the Stoic tutor of Marcus Aurelius, who influenced him around 133 AD.

The letter is twelve chapters long, beginning with an address and compliments to Diognetus, a Gentile. It speaks of the nature of idols, of Jewish superstitions, then of the nature and strength of the Christian life (Schaff 2014, loc. 21339). The author speaks of the condition of the word without Christ, the blessings of his coming, and the hope found in Christ (Schaff 2014, loc. 21347).

Schaff considers the authorship, concluding that, thoguh the manuscript ascribes the letter to Justin Martyr, the style is different. Authorship is not actually known, but Schaff again places the letter in the second century, probably about the time of Marcus Aurelius (Schaff 2014, loc. 21360).

Papias - Early Commentator

3/16/2020

Mondays are for Church History
3/16/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 169. Papias.

Papias is known to us through some fragementary writings and through passages quoted by Irenaeas (Schaff 2014, loc. 21232). After a very brief bibliography, Schaff identifies Papias as “a disciple of John and friend of Polycarp . . . bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia, till towards the middle of the second century (Schaff 2014, loc. 21240). Schaff considers that he probably was born around 70 and died about 155. Schaff evaluates Papias as “a pious, devout and learned student of the Scriptures, and a faithful traditionalist, though somewhat credulous and of limited comprehension” (Schaff 2014, loc. 21248). He was, by all accounts, committed to passing on the traditions and teachings of the apostolic period. “He collected with great zeal the oral traditions of the apostles and their disciples respecting the discourses and works of Jesus, and published them in five books under the title: ‘Explanation of the Lord’s Discourses’” (Schaff 2014, loc. 21255). The book was lost sometime in or after the 13th century, though some fragments remain, quoted by Irenaeus and Eusebius. It is in this book that Papias discusses the alleged Hebrew composition of Matthew’s Gospel as well as the influence of Peter on Mark’s Gospel (Schaff 2014, loc. 21263).

Schaff views Papias as a valuable source for the early 2nd century chiliasm, the interest in oral tradition related to apostles and prophets, as well as to the overall state of the canon of Scripture in his time (Schaff 2014, loc. 21270). There is some debate about Papias’ relation to the apostle John, as he may possibly indicate there are two separate people - the apostle and the elder. Schaff tends to think the two descriptions refer to the same person, John the author of the Fourth Gospel (Schaff 2014, loc. 21293).

Hermas - Wild Allegory

3/9/2020

Mondays are for Church History
3/9/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 168. Hermas.

Schaff provides a brief bibliography. It is of interest to me that there was debate in the scholarly community about the authenticity of the Greek version as opposed to the Latin version, discovered earlier. The issue was largely settled in the 1860s (Schaff 2014, loc. 20133). The title of the work is derived from the author’s self-identification as “Hermas” and the fact that he is instructed by an angel who appaers as a shepherd (Schaff 2014, loc. 21056). The text is an allegorical and didactic apocalypse. The work is in three books: visions, commands, and parables. Schaff finds that these are intended to call Hermas, and the church through him, to repentance (Schaff 2014, loc. 21071). Schaff considers the work to be of no literary merit. “It is prosy, frigid, monotonous, repetitious, overloaded with uninteresting details, but animated by a pure love of nature and an ardent zeal for doing good” (Schaff 2014, loc. 21080). Schaff reprints the first vision as an example of the style.

In his analysis of the theology, Schaff finds that Hermas has a very non-technical form of theology in which Christianity brings a new law to replace the old law of Judaism. Man’s duty is to keep the laws given by Christ (Schaff 2014, loc. 21134). This is a striking difference from the other Fathers. However, several elements of historic Christianity are present, such as the pre-existence of God the Son, the existence of an ideal church which differs from what is found in society, and the urgent importance of water baptism (Schaff 2014, loc. 21141). Much of Hermas’ theology can be traced to Jewish apocalyptic writers. The prophetic and ascetic tendencies suggest a relationship to Montanism, but the Montanist movement arose after this work. Further, the asceticism endorsed is not as strict as that of the Montanists (Schaff 2014, loc. 21171).

Schaff notes the authorship and dating could suggest Hermas as a friend of Paul (Rom. 16:14), a contemporary of Clement, “a brother of Bishop Pius of Rome” (Schaff 2014, loc. 21179), a composite of several people in the time of Trajan, or another fictive character. Schaff’s view is that Hermas was a contemporary of Clement who may also have been a young disciple mentioned by Paul some years earlier (Schaff 2014, loc. 21179). The text suggests several unfortunate situations in the author’s life. By the time of writing there was some level of corruption in the church.

The book was very popular and influential in the second and third centuries but didn’t have long term significance (Schaff 2014, loc. 21193). It fell out of respect and out of use by the fifth century and was lost, in Greek, for several centuries.

Barnabas - Early and Christian but Not up to Canon

3/2/2020

Mondays are for Church History
3/2/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 167. Barnabas.

After a somewhat extensive bibliography, Schaff points out that the Epistle of Barnabas, which makes no mention of the author’s name or location, speaks to the reader as a peer, not as a teacher (Schaff 2014, loc. 20964). The letter begins with 17 chapters of a doctrinal nature, then continues with four chapters which are more akin to practical exhortation. Schaff considers the writing and message inferior to that of Hebrews, though similar in its thrust (Schaff 2014, loc. 20972). The view of the Old Testament and of Judaism articulated in Barnabas is allegorical and to be interpreted mystically. Schaff finds in Barnabas an ideal of pure spiritual worship and a dietary law that had nothing to do with eating and drinking but everything to do with the people with whom we associate (Schaff 2014, loc. 20979).

Schaff does consider Barnabas to have some redemptive qualities, though. He does have a zeal for knowledge and confirms major elements of the gospel (Schaff 2014, loc. 20994). He refers to several passages from the New Testament, as well as the Old Testament.

Barnabas was considered by Clement of Alexandria and by Origen as a genuine work of Barnabas, who toured with Paul (Schaff 2014, loc. 21002). Others, such as Eusebius and Jerome question the authority but not the authorship. On the whole, Schaff considers it not to be a genuine work of Barnabas and not to bear authority (Schaff 2014, loc. 21010). Schaff is “quite certain that if Barnabas wrote this epistle, he cannot be the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and vice versa” (Schaff 2014, 21017). Schaff speculates that the letter was probably written by a Jewish convert, familiar with allegorical methods, written between 70 and 100.

Polycarp - Never Giving Up on Jesus

2/24/2020

Mondays are for Church History
2/24/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 166. Polycarp of Smyrna.

After a brief bibliography, Schaff identifies “Polycarp, born about A.D. 69 or earlier, a disciple of the apostle John, a younger friend of Ignatius, and the teacher of Irenaeus (between 130 and 140), presided as presbyter-bishop over the church of Smyrna in Asia in the first half of the second century; made a journey to Rome about the year 154, to adjust the Easter dispute; and died at the stake in the persecution under Antoninus Pius A.D. 155, at a great age, having served the Lord six and eighty years” (Schaff 2014, 20851). He was spoken of very favorably by Irenaeus. Polycarp was known for holding very firmly to the Christian faith against all opponents.

Though Polycarp apparently wrote numerous letters to congregations, the only one we have was to the Philippians (Schaff 2014, 20865). Schaff notes not only a strong influence of John but also of Paul and the Synoptic Gospels in Polycarp, who does consider faith and salvation as gifts of grace (Schaff 2014, 20880).

The martyrdom text, mostly included in Eusebius, and published completely by Ussher in 1647, describes some of the events in away Schaff considers “legendary poesy” (Schaff 2014, 20887).

Schaff illustrates Polycarp’s style by reprinting the first four chapters of his letter to the Philippians (Schaff 2014, 20895). The text is packed full of allusions to and quotations from the New Testament. Schaff then continues by quoting the answer of Polycarp when asked to renounce Christ (Schaff 2014, 20925), as well as his prayer recorded as the flames approached to kill him. His desire was to remain faithful to the end and be a worthy sacrifice for his Lord.

Identifying Authentic Letters of Ignatius

2/17/2020

Mondays are for Church History
2/17/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 165. The Ignatian Controversy.

The letters of Ignatius have received a good deal of scholarly attention and comment, according to Schaff, partly because they exist in significantly different versions, partly because of the statements about bishops (Schaff 2014, 20760). Between 1495 and 1498, a total of 15 letters were identified and published. However, by the time of Calvin, most were rejected as inauthentic. In the mid 1600s the seven letters known to Eusebius were published in the short versions which Schaff considers authentic (Schaff 2014, 20784). He does detail scholarshs who accept the authenticity and those who reject it for various reasons. Schaff does find considerable internal evidence for the early dating of the short versions. Particularly, they cite Scripture seldom, the attack Gnosticism based on its early forms, they speak indefinitely about specific theological topics, and they make no mention of Roman primacy in the fresh and hopeful episcopacy (Schaff 2014, 20813).

A Syriac text, published in the mid 800s, seems early. It lacks some of the potentially offensive parts found in the Greek text (Schaff 2014, 20828). However, the Syriac text is significantly different from the Greek text. For this reason, and because Eusebius described seven letters, Schaff considers the short Greek version as the most authentic.

Who Was Ignatius of Antioch?

2/10/2020

Mondays are for Church History
2/10/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 164. Ignatius of Antioch.

After an annotated bibliography on the letters of Ignatius and the martyrology, Schaff continues by discussing Ignatius’ life in brief (Schaff 2014, 20676). A contemporary of Clement of Rome, Ignatius was head of the Church in Antioch, the leading community of Christianity among the Gentiles. Because of Antioch’s heretical tendencies, the Church there had an emphasis on both orthodox doctrine and sound organization (Schaff 2014, 20685). There is conflicting information, but it appears Ignatius probably had a strong influence and possibly an appointment to leadership from Peter, Paul, and John. Ignatius’ martyrdom was widely considered important by early Christians (Schaff 2014, 20692). Schaff notes that according to the martyrdom Ignatius was condemned by Trajan in Antioch in 107-108, and that he was transported to Rome to face lions in the Coliseum. The difficulty with this account is that we don’t think Trajan was in Antioch until 114-115 (Schaff 2014, 20700). Schaff suspects the condemnation was performed by a governor rather than by Trajan himself.

On the way to Rome, Ignatius wrote seven letters to churches, with four written from Smyrna and the other three from Troas (Schaff 2014, 20707). The letters exist in a shorter and longer form, of which Schaff considers the shorter much more likely to be authentic. There is also a Syriac version of three of the letters. The different versions preserve the same organizational pattern (Schaff 2014, 20722).

Ignatius not only considers it an honor to die for Christ, but also emphasizes the importance of submitting to the authority of bishops (Schaff 2014, 20722). His style of writing is very forceful and brief, showing a great love for Christ. It is his great honor to be permitted to die for Christ. Therefore, he urges that people make no attempt to rescue him (Schaff 2014, 20730). Schaff considers that he seems to desire death in an almost fanatical manner. He also violates normal decorum by urging Polycarp, doubtless his senior, to strive after zeal and godliness (Schaff 2014, 20745). The emphasis on the authority of bishops has widely been considered suspect by those who think episcopal authority was not safe or was not recognized at such an early time (Schaff 2014, 20753).

Not Really Clement . . .

2/3/2020

Mondays are for Church History
2/3/20

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 163. The Pseudo-Clementine Works.

Schaff notes a number of works falsely attributed to Clement of Rome. Among these are a homily which is orthodox but otherwise uninteresting (Schaff 2014, 20605), two letters about virginity (Schaff 2014, 20613), part of the Apostolical Constitutions, a number of Ebionite homilies, and a number of decretal letters assigning Clement as the successor of Peter to the papacy (Schaff 2014, 20621).

We observe that some of the writings are orthodox and some are heretical. They tend to assert an authority for Clement and for particular doctrines which were never claimed by Clement or during his time.

Clement of Rome

12/16/2019

Mondays are for Church History
12/16/10

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 162. Clement of Rome.

Schaff provides a brief bibliography regarding Clement of Rome, noting that the so-called second epistle “is a homily of a later date” (Schaff 2014, 20485). Clement, possibly the one mentioned by Paul in Philippians 4:3, follows the examples of Peter and Paul, whom he knew (Schaff 2014, 20503). He shows signs of being from a distinguished family and also having intimate knowledge of the Septuagint. He was at the head of the Roman Christians. “According to Eusebius he was bishop from the twelfth year of Domitian to the third of Trajan (A.D. 92 to 101)” (Schaff 2014, 20509). Schaff observes that many legends have emerged around Clement, but little is actually known about him.

Clement is known for an epistle to the Corinthians, which was frequently cited by the Fathers but was lost for atime, then reproduced in 1633 (Schaff 2014, 20526). Since then, several additional versions have been discovered. Schaff considers it “the oldest and best among the sub-apostolic writings both in form and contents” (Schaff 2014, 20538). The letter is full of quotations both from the Septuagint and the Apocrypha, and also shows familiarity with numerous New Testament letters (Schaff 2014, 20544). Schaff further notes that many central Christian doctrines are spoken of, at least briefly, in 1 Clement.

Schaff observes that 1 Clement bears strong resemblances to Paul and to the book of Hebrews, though there are similarities to Peter as well. “There is no trace in it of an antagonism between Paulinism and Petrinism” (Schaff 2014, 20560). The idea of justification by grace through faith is certainly present, which Schaff finds unusual among the apostolic fathers. Additionally, Clement is very zealous for unity in the Christian faith, even saying that old legends point to a proper unity in creation (Schaff 2014, 20578). This unity, according to Schaff, extends in 1 Clement to the reconciliation of Judaic and Gentile Christian factions, which suggests to Schaff that the letter was written from a time when much of the earlier discomfort had been resolved. Schaff further notes that in Clement the pastoral office is an extension of the Levitical priesthood and has not yet led to a magisterial view of bishops. Clement has a concept of the eschaton as an imminent event, drawing in a variety of signs and teachings as reason to expect Christ’s coming at any time (Schaff 2014, 20591).

Schaff dates the letter “after the death of Peter and Paul, for it celebrates their martyrdom; and probably after the death of John (about 98); for one would suppose, that if he had been living, Clement would have alluded to him, in deference to superior authority, and that the Corinthian Christians would have applied to an apostle for counsel, rather than to adisciple of the apostles in distant Rome” (Schaff 2014, 20597). He refers to persecutions by Nero and Domitian, and sees the church in Corinth as “ancient.”

Churchmen Interested in Christ, Not in Themselves

12/9/2019

Mondays are for Church History
12/9/10

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 161. The Apostolic Fathers.

After an extensive bibliography, Schaff identifies the apostolic fathers as “the first church teachers after the apostles, who haed enjoyed in past personal intercourse with them, and thus form the connecting link between them and the apologists of the second century (Schaff 2014, 20448). He acknowledges that we know little of these authors or, for that matter, of the apostles. The life in Christ was considered as much more important, so the authors of Christian works were considered to be relatively unimportant. Their works are not lengthy, Schaff observes, comprisonly only about wice as much writing as the New Testament (Schaff 2014, 20455). Most are simply exhortations to faith in Christ. “Yet they show the genus of the apologetic, polemic, dogmatic, and ethic theology, as well as the outlines of the organization and the cultus of the ancient Catholic church” (Schaff 2014, 20463).

Schaff considers the writing of the apostolic Fathers to be of lower quality than that of the New Testament, from which he adduces apostolic inspiration by contrast (Schaff 2014, 20471). He also notes the tendncy of the apostolic fathers to quote sayings, rather than writings, of the apostles. The Fathers, though often read in churches, were never considered to bear the same authority as the texts which were later recognized as authoritative Scripture.

Why Church Fathers?

12/2/2019

Mondays are for Church History
12/2/10

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 160. A General Estimate of the Fathers.

Schaff states his awareness that the earliest Christian writings were not particularly interested in scientific or literary concerns. However, “for the very reason that it is a new life, Christianity must produce also a new science and literature; partly from the inherent impulse of faith towards deeper and clearer knowledge of its object for its own satisfaction; partly from the demands of self-preservation against assaults from without; partly from the practical want of instruction and direction for the people” (Schaff 2014, 20326). Over time, Schaff notes, Christianity acted to preserve classical literature and art of value, as well as adding to the artistic and literary heritage of the West.

The earliest Christian literature was in Greek, with the exception being a rise of Latin by the late second century, in North Africa. Even in and around Rome, Greek was the language of philosophy and of Christianity. “The patristic literature in general falls considerably below the classical in elegance of form, but far surpasses it in the sterling quality of its matter” (Schaff 2014, 20341). While some authors were not remarkable for their style, by the 4th and 5th centuries several authors arose who were notworthy both for content and for style.

Schaff notes that the idea of a “church-father” is derived from the paternal respect and authority which a teacher or bishop would have. The most respected were considered “fathers of the Church” (Schaff 2014, 20349). Generally we don’t consider people after the 7th or 8th centuries patristic authors. Schaff does observe that the criteria for recognition of church fathers are not entirely clear. Some are received in some areas, but not others. Some have more clearly mature theology than others. Schaff cites a number of instances in which various church fathers may not have been completely in line with later articulations of orthodoxy. Schaff goes so far as to say that “[T]he ‘unanimous consent of the fathers’ is a mere illusion, except on the most fundamental articles of general Christianity” (Schaff 2014, 20371). He further describes the fathers frequently speaking of many of the distinctive ideas embraced by Greek and Roman orthodoxy where it differs from Protestantism. Schaff points his readers to the New Testament, father than the Fathers, for authority.

Schaff briefly classifies patristic authors by their subject matter (Schaff 2014, 20393). He then adds several notes, observing that the Roman church continued to list “patres” and then “doctores” deserving of special note, even as late as the Council of Trent.

A Deep Breath for a Bibliography

11/25/2019

Mondays are for Church History
11/25/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age, and Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers.” sec. 159-204.
§ 159. Literature.

Schaff begins his discussion of the churchly literature of the ante-Nicene period with an annotated bibliography. Of special note, he considers the Migne collection “the cheapest and most complete patristic library, but carelessly edited, and often inaccurate” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20242). Schaff’s evaluations of the various works are valuable as he compares different editions of the same work and also identifies which authors are best treated in which collections. He also identifies the theological orientation of polemical works. As a section of bibliography, this portion of Schaff’s text does not address any of the early Christian literature itself.

Millennialism in Early Christianity

11/18/2019

Mondays are for Church History
11/18/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 158. Chiliasm.

Schaff notes that the controversy of millennialism has been brought up in English language polemical writings a great deal (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20159). However, Schaff does not find a scholarly and in-depth analysis of the issue. Though the early church did not make a formal creedal statement, chiliastic views were fairly common. “The most striking point in the eschatology of the ante-Nicene age is the prominent chiliasm, or millennarianism, that is the belief of a visible reign of Christ in glory on earth with the risen saints for a thousand years, before the general resurrection and judgment (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20166).

Chiliasm existed “shortly before and after Christ” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20174) in Jewish apocalyptic literature. It was also adopted by some heretics, including Ebionites and Gnostics. The Christian forms focused on the second coming of Christ, rather than his first coming. Normally it finds a resurrection both before and after the millennium, as well as a brief reign of Satan prior to an eternal reign of Christ. The models are regularly built on Revelation rather than other parts of the canonical Scripture (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20181). Justin Martyr seems to Schaff the pivotal character in the move from Jewish to Christian chiliasm. Schaff describes Justin’s teaching in some detail (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20189), He also details Irenaeus and Tertullian. Tertullian actually incorporated some ideas from Montanism into his eschatology (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20204).

Schaff finds that the opposition to chiliasm dates to the very early times of Christianity. Caius of Rome associated chiliasm with the gnostic Cerinthus (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20212). Origen rejected it out of hand as well as rejecting apostolicity for Revelation. The growth and acceptance of Christianity throughout the empire suggested a different view, articulated by Augustine. “The apocalyptic millennium he understood to be the present reign of Christ in the Catholic church, and the first resurrection, the translation of the martyrs and saints to heaven, where they participate in Christ’s reign (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20219). For this reason, Schaff says it was common as the first millennium closed to expect Christ to come.

In general, Schaff says, chiliasm has been considered a heresy or at least as a point to be rejected. However, it periodically arises again (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20226). There must always be a living hope in the return of Christ, but the models of a literal thousand year period do not seem to work well.

Final Judgment - One Right View, Two Wrong Views

11/11/2019

Mondays are for Church History
11/11/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 157. After Judgment. Future Punishment.

After a brief bibliography, Schaff observes that Christians have always agreed that the righteous “shall inherit eternal life and enjoy the blessed communion of God forever and ever” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20097). However there have been three different ideas about the “impenitent.”

First, the orthodox idea is that of everlasting punishment. This is consistent with most Jewish teaching. Schaff also finds it in Ignatius, Hermas, and Justin Martyr (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20104). Schaff describes the views of Justin in some detail, as well as those of Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian, and Cyprian (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20120).

A secondary view is that of a “final annihilation of the wicked” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20127). In this view the sinful soul is completely destroyed. Schaff observes that the view has been attributed to Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, but he asserts that they spoke too strongly of eternal punishment to think otherwise.

A third view is that of a final restoration of all to holiness. Schaff notes that this view says repentance, conversion and salvation are, in the end, useless (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20135). Origen did fall into this view, but with some moderation. Gregory of Nyssa was more adamant in his universalism. (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20143).

Between Death and Resurrection

11/4/2019

Mondays are for Church History
11/4/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 156. Between Death and Resurrection.

Schaff trenchantly observes that it “is difficult to conceive of a disembodied state of happiness or woe without physical organs for enjoyment and suffering” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20019). This is exactly the problem we face when discussing death of the body but the soul living on apart from the body as we await the resurrection. For this reason different church fathers took various views about the consciousness of the soul before the resurrection. By the time of the Nicene and the post-Nicene fathers, Schaff finds the folliwing ideas articulated.

Those trusting in God before Christ were held, waiting, until Christ appeared after his death to move them to paradise (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20033). Christian martyrs and others of eminence went immediately to paradise. Most Christians rest in a place of happiness while their remaining sin erodes at which time they reach paradise (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20041). Those who are impenitent or unbelievers go to lower regions for misery before the finan judgment. Those who were pagans or unbaptized were assumed to be judged in some way we do not fully understand (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20055). Because of “the idea of the imperfection of the middle state and the possibility of progressive amelioration” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20057) it became common to pray for the departed, though that custom is not supported in Scripture. This custom appears in liturgies after the fourth century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20064). Schaff notes that this cluster of beliefs led to the idea of Purgatory, a middle state which leads eventually to paradise.

Early Christian Views of Eternity

10/28/2019

Mondays are for Church History
10/28/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 155. Eschatology, Immortality, and Resurrection.

Schaff opens this section with a detailed bibliography (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19873), classified as general, Greek and Roman, Jewish, and Christian. He emphasizes that Christianity’s meaning is dependent on an adequate view of an eternal future. The Christian faith is built on the hope of resurrection (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19895). Christianity teaches the eternity of the Christian as “absolute certainty, sealed by the resurrection of Christ” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19910). In comparison, Schaff sees the non-Christian religions as giving a “vague and confused” message.

Schaff goes on to describe several of the different philosophies and the level of hope given by each. He demonstrates that “of a resurrection of the body the Greeks and Romans had no conception, except in the form of shades and spectral outlines, which were supposed to surround the disembodied spirits, and to make them to some degree recognizable” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19947).

Jewish doctrine, which developed over time, first gave rather vague hints at eternity, but gradually became more clear. Schaff does find that Jewish thought tended to focus on a gloomy afterlife, similar to Hades, though at times they would consider a separate Paradise (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19970).

The Christian view of the future differs from the pagan and Jewish views. Schaff notes that the Christian doctrine considers an eternal future state as a matter of certainty. The body and soul are together made immortal, with death holding no terror for the Christian. The Christian is promised complete “holiness and happiness” as opposed to the non-Christian, who expects “absolute misery” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19986). This view is articulated in the Apostles’, Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, all of which promise a final judgment and resurrection. Schaff also cites the Clementine liturgy, the liturgy of James, and the liturgy of Mark, which all speak of resurrection and judgment (Schaff 2014, Loc. 20004). Questions not answered in these sources are left open to debate, but Schaff finds a resurrection and judgment with a predictable outcome to be central to Christian eschatology.

Various Doctrines Understood Early, Articulated Late

10/21/2019

Mondays are for Church History
10/21/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 154. Other Doctrines.

Schaff notes that many doctrines which were apparently believed among early Christians were not clearly codified and explained in the Fathers, “including faith, justification, and sanctification” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19866). The more subjectively understood doctrines were among the last to be clearly articulated. The more objective, the earlier the doctrine is explained.

Redemption - The How

10/14/2019

Mondays are for Church History
10/14/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 153. Redemption.

After a brief and lightly annotated bibliography, Schaff speaks to the importance of the idea of redemption. “The work of the triune God, in his self-revelation, is the salvation, or redemption and reconciliation of the world: negatively, the emancipation of humanity from the guilt and power of sin and death: positively, the communication of the righteousness and life of fellowship with God” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19803). One of the key goals of every religion is some form of reconciliation with God. Christianity proclaims this through an objective reality of Christ’s death and resurrection, as well as the more subjective work of the Holy Spirit received by grace through faith. Schaff notes that while the Scriptures bear witness of all this truth, it has only gradually been unpacked and interpreted by the Church. “Experience anticipated theology” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19809). The language of early Christianity is based in a grateful attitude of thanksgiving rather than in analytical explanation of the implications of salvation. The doctrine of redemption is treated differently from those of the trinity or of the nature of Christ. However, Schaff emphasizes, “all the essential elements of the later church doctrine of redemption may be found, either expressed or implied, before the close of the second century” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19815).

Schaff goes on to describe the way various aspects of redemption were described in early Christianity, from Christ’s victory over Satan and his claims (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19821), to Christ’s ability to win in the conflict due to his person as God the Son (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19826), to the fact that Jesus’ death could satisfy the demands of God’s Law (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19832). A fairly comprehensive analysis appears in Irenaeus, but the concepts were present before his writing. Again, the explanatin came after the realization (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19844). Origen, differing from Irenaeus, sees Christ paying a ransom to Satan so as to purchase humanity from the owner of the sinful beings (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19856). This view was not broadly accepted. Schaff sees Athanasius as the other Greek father who analyzed this issue of redemption. Later analysis was within the Latin church.

Sabellius - An Ingenious Unitarian Heretic

10/7/2019

Mondays are for Church History
10/7/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 152. Sabellianism.

Schaff describes Sabellius as “by far the most original, profound, and ingenious of the ante-Nicene Unitarians, and his system the most plausible rival of orthodox trinitarianism” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19761). Sabellius had a significant influence in Rome as well as in the Pentapolis (Egypt). He was excommunicated by Dionysius of Alexandria in 260 or 261, starting a hot theological debate. Sabellius affirms the Holy Spirit, as opposed to many Monarchians, who concentrated on the Father and the Son (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19768). However, the trinity as Sabellius sees it is still modalistic. The persons of the Trinity are successive revelations of a unified God who lacks the threefold distinctive persons. The different revelations of God have different functions in the world. They do not act at the same time, because only one can exist at a time (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19776). Athanasius considered this a Stoic philosophy. Schaff relates it to Pythagorean philosophy as well (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19784).

More Deniers of the Trinity

9/30/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/30/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 151. Second Class of Antitrinitarians: Praxeas, Noetus, Callistus, Berryllus.

A second group of antitrinitarians, rather than seeing Christ as a merely powerful human, held to Christ’s deity but “sacrificed it to his independent personality, which they merged in the essence of the Father” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19716). These teachers, according to Schaff, had some acceptance even in Rome, through the third century. Prominent among the antitrinitarians, was Praxeas, who, when confronted by Tertullian, was unable to explain adequately that his doctrine did not include the suffrering of God the Father (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19722). Noetus of Smyrna, active at the very start of the third century, held the same positions, viewing all nature to come together into one, an idea similar to that of Heraclitus (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19729). Pope Callistus I took on the views of Noetus, declaring the Son to be “merely the manifestation of the Father in human form” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19736). For this reason, the Father also suffered on the cross. Schaff does note that much of this report comes from Hippolytus, who opposed Callistus vehemently. Finally, Berryllus of Bostra, according to the one passage found in Eusebius, “denied the personal pre-existence and in general the independent divinity of Christ, but at the same time asserted the indwelling of the divinity of the Father in him during his earthly life” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19749). In a consultation in 244 with Origen in Arabia, he was corrected and convinced of his error.

Early Denials of the Trinity - Monarchians

9/23/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/23/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 150. Antitrinitarians. First class: The Alogi, Theodotus, Artemon, Paul of Samosata.

Schaff observes that the doctrine of the Trinity was well articulated primarily due to controversies of the third century, in which various antitrinitarians arose, normally called Monarchians or Unitarians. Both titles imply the Godhead existing in only one person. Schaff cautions that “we must carefully distinguish among the two opposite classes: the rationalistic or dynamic Monarchians, who denied the divinity of Christ, or explained it as a mere “power”. . . and the patripassian or modalistic Monarchians, who identified the Son with the Father, and admitted at most only a modal trinity, that is a threefold mode of revelation, but not a tripersonality” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19668). The first, dealt with in this section, was refuted in Christianity but arose outside of the Church, particularly in Islam and in the Eastern Unitarian sects. In essence, Schaff finds, the first class of Monarchians saw Christ merely as a man, but endowed with special power of the Holy Spirit.

Among the first class Monarchians Schaff classes the Alogi, who rejected the idea of Christ as the Logos. They also rejected the Apocalypse as something of no use (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19682). The Theodotians, another group, arose in Byzantium. Theodotus denied Christ in a time of persecution, saying he was only a man, but later said he considered “him to be the supernaturally begotten Messiah” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19689). Theodotus was excommunicated between 192 and 202. His followers selected another bishop afterwards. The followers of Artemon were a bit later, after 202. Artemon considered the divinity of Christ to be an innovation rather than a tenet held by Christians from the outset. His followers were very enthusiastic about mathematics and pagan Greek philosophers (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19695). Finally, Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch after 260, considered the Son and the Holy Spirit “merely powers of God” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19702). He was accused of both heresy and other character flaws before being deposed in 268 or 269, after which time the first class Monarchians largely declined (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19709).

Trinitarian Christianity Articulated Not Invented

9/16/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/16/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 149. The Holy Trinity..

Having reviewed early Christian descriptions of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, Schaff observes that the formulation of the Trinity is complete, and that the teaching of the Trinity “has a peculiar, comprehensive, and definitive import in the Christian system, as a brief summary of all the truths and blessings of revealed religion” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19571). However, the Scripture normally speaks obliquely about the Trinity, treating with one or another person of the Godhead at a time. Schaff sees the Trinity as that which clearly sets Christianity apart from all the other world religions (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19579).

Schaff notes some opinions that the Trinity came from Platonism, neo-Platonism, or from an Indian religion, but discounts those ideas out of thand (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19592). There may have been a predisposition to see plurality in divinity, but the Trinity is decisively a New Testament explication. Schaff further notes that theologians have frequently tried to find Trinitarian references in nature, though they regularly prove inadequate (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19612).

The Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds are arranged around the Trinity, which formulation also appears in many doxologies and other traditional statements of the Church (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19619). With all this evidence, the claims that the Trinity was a relatively late theological invention do not stand up to scrutiny. Schaff details the articulations of various Fathers, showing that they differ primarily in their means of explanation rather than in their underlying concepts.

The Holy Spirit, A Real Person

9/9/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/9/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 148. The Holy Spirit.

Schaff notes that controversy about the Holy Spirit was largely absent prior to the 4th century, which can explain why there were relatively few attempts at explanation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19518). He does not take this in any way as an indication that there was less of a Trinitarian understanding of theology, merely that there was no need to defend the nature of the Holy Spirit. The ante-Nicene understanding was “that the Holy Spirit, the sole agent in the application of redemption, is a supernatural divine being, and taht he is an independent person; thus closely allied to the Father and the Son yet hypostatically different from them both” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19531). However, in some instances the Holy Spirit was seen as subordinate to the Father and the Son. Schaff cites Justin Martyr as holding and explaining this view (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19538). Clement of Alexandria and Origen also tend to this weakness, while still confessing the deity and eternity of the Holy Spirit. Irenaeus comes closer to a Nicene understanding (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19565). Again, the careful explanation seems to emerge from questions and disputes.

Jesus As the Only Partaker of Two Natures

9/2/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/2/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 147. The Relation of the Divine and the Human in Christ.

Schaff considers that the discussion of the two natures in Christ and their relationship was not at a head until the fifth century. However, the idea is present in Irenaeus, who “teaches unequivocally a true and indissoluble union of divinity and humanity in Christ” counter to the Gnostics (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19504). He finds in general that the divine nature shows primarily in creation and the human nature in his receptive nature on earth. The two natures he sees bound together by the Holy Spirit, who overshadowed Mary. Irenaeus further sees Jesus as the second Adam and Mary, in a sense, as the second Eve, mother of all righteousness (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19511).The idea of Jesus as “God-man” comes from Origen, also the first to use the metaphor of iron warmed in a fire taking on the nature of the fire (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19517).