Category: Schaff 2014 - Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry

Montanism - bibliography available

12/3/2018

Mondays are for Church History
12/3/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 10. Montanism.” Sections 109-111, Loc. 17486-17654.

§ 109. Literature.

Schaff observes that the work of Tertullian after A.D. 201 supplies a great deal of information about Montanism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17486). Schaff provides a etailed bibliograpy in this section. He lists numerous other writings from antiquity as well as more recent scholarship on the Montanist movement.Schaff’s analysis is perhaps especially useful due to his annotations of the bibliography, which can help the reader find the philosophical presuppositions of the various authors. The entirety of this section is devoted to bibliographic aids.

Marriage Customs among Clergy

11/26/2018

Mondays are for Church History
11/26/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 9. Ascetic Tendencies.” Sections 104-108, Loc. 17159-17485.

§ 108. Celibacy of the Clergy.

Schaff opens this section of his text with a fairly comprehensive bibliography of the topic (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17367). The essence of clergy, as representative of Christ, always included “sexual temperance” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17391). The fact that Jesus never married suggested priestly celibacy. Schaff notes that various pagan religious groups also practiced celibacy. However, it was never a matter of law among Christians prior to Nicea (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17397). Schaff further notes that the apostle Paul “classes the prohibition of marriage. . . among the doctrines of demons” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17402). Marriage had always been seen as honorable.

However, especially in the West, an approval of priestly celibacy tended to grow up over time (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17413). Schaff makes it clear that priestly marriage was common in early Christianity at least into the fifth century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17428). At the same time, it was nt unusual for clerics to choose not to marry. Many who did had unhappy marriages.

For a reason which Schaff does not specify, the custom of not allowing clergy to remarry grew after the third century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17434). The practices, in both East and West, continued to become more rigorous over time (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17440). As time passed, clergy who were ordained were prevented from marrying. Those who were already married were prohibited from “conjugal intercourse,” effectlvely breaking their marriages (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17445).

After the Council of Nicea, Schaff finds the Western Church tending to become more limiting of marriage and the Eastern Church less limiting (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17461). In the West, complete celibacy of clergy became the rule by the late 5th century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17471).

Schaff emphasizes that his objection is not to celibacy or marriage, but to the unnatural and extrabiblical practice of requiring either position (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17477).

Vows of Celibacy

11/19/2018

Mondays are for Church History
11/19/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 9. Ascetic Tendencies.” Sections 104-108, Loc. 17159-17485.

§ 107. Voluntary Celibacy.

Schaff finds an “exaggeration” of celibacy drawn from Matthew 19:12; 22:30; 1 Corinthians 7:7ff, and Revelation 14:4 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17291). He considers it exaggerated because it is a view going beyond the bounds of the specific biblical passages. Other biblical texts make it clear that marriage is a good thing, especially for clergy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17296).

Schaff observes that Roman paganism tended to exalt virginity, especially with the cult of the Vestals (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17302). Christians may have adopted a high view of celibacy from paganism combined with a desire for angelic purity.

The exaltation of celibacy was not an entirely bad thing. Schaff observes that the women in Christianity who didn’t marry were often considered with great dignity and received respect due to their frequent dedication to caring for the poor or the sick (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17313). The actual depreciation of marriage was at its peak later, in the late third century and after (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17318). There was always a recognition of the honor of purity and separation from cultural excesses. However, many, most notably Clement of Alexandria, considered marriage and celibacy alike as honorable ways of life (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17329).

Schaff goes on to list numerous instances of less balanced views of marriage. In some cases, the practice of celibacy also led to indolence (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17356) or even impure thoughts and actions. Schaff notes that as demands for clerical celibacy increased, instances of clergy violation of their vows also tended to increase (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17367).

Poor, but Why?

11/12/2018

Mondays are for Church History
11/12/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 9. Ascetic Tendencies.” Sections 104-108, Loc. 17159-17485.

§ 106. Vountary Poverty.

Among ascetic practices Schaff considers the voluntary poverty engaged in by many Christians. He recognizes the vows of poverty as having their source in Jesus’ command to the rich young ruler, who was told to sell his possessions and give them away (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17280). Further, Christ and the apostles also seemed to live in poverty. Counter to the common idea of Christian poverty, Clement of Alexandria encouraged careful use of material goods to care for the world (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17285). However, it is noted that many Christians have historically avoided the overt pursuit of fortune and its trappings.

Heretical and Catholic Asceticism

11/5/2018

Mondays are for Church History
11/5/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 9. Ascetic Tendencies.” Sections 104-108, Loc. 17159-17485.

§ 105. Heretical and Catholic Asceticism.

Schaff observes that not all asceticism in antiquity was alike. Some, based on pagan philosophy, he considers heretical, but that based on Christian ideals is sound (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17225). The heretical kind develops in Gnosticism and Manichaenism. He finds these ideas based on “a confusion of sin with matter, and a perverted idea of God and the creation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17230). A genuinely Christian asceticism, on the othre hand, grows from Scripture, though Schaff finds it to strain some passages of Scripture. The purpose of a Christian asceticism is to control the body, rather than to mortify it (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17236). However, Schaff considers it to devolve into the same misuse of asceticism as found among the Gnostics. Eventually, there is a desire to escape from the body (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17241). Asceticism moves ultimately to a division of sins from one another based on how harmful they are. This in turn creates special classes of holy people (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17247). Doing works of piety becomes a work which can earn special merit. The list of works which earn merit then grows (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17263).

Ascetic Virtues

10/29/2018

Mondays are for Church History
10/29/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 9. Ascetic Tendencies.” Sections 104-108, Loc. 17159-17485.

§ 104. Ascetic Virtue and Piety.

Schaff makes it clear that in his discussion of Asceticism he will be deferring most of the elements of Monasticim to the following chapter (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17170). The study of asceticism can make this period of Christianity appear very legalistic. After all, much of Christianity was seen through specific outward practices (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17173). The ideal was to retreat from the world, rather than to live in the world by God’s grace. Schaff, who views asceticism in very negative terms, finds it a strong element in Christianity by the late third century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17176). He defines asceticism as a rigid outward morality. The problem Schaff has with this asceticism is that it goes beyond Scripture and results in an arrogant disdain for biblical standards.

Schaff does note that ascetic movements are not only found in Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17192). However, he finds special interests in ascetic practices among Christians by the second half of the second century. These people would retreat from society and social good for the sake of Christian purity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17208). However, the bulk of the ascetic movement happened after the time of Constantine, when Christianity was no longer officially censured (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17214). Asceticism remained popular in Christianity throughout the Middle Ages.

A Summary of Early Christian Moral Reforms

10/22/2018

Mondays are for Church History
10/22/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 103. Summary of Moral Reforms.

Schaff brings his chapter of comparison between Christian and pagan ethics to a close witha brief summary. He concludes that while Christianity tends to increase in the light it brings to society, paganism brings increasing darkness (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17129). Christianity has shown a historic pattern of protecting rights and human dignity as well as helping those in need. It is a religion which tends to reform society (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17140).

Treatment of the Dead

10/15/2018

Mondays are for Church History
10/15/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 102. Treatment of the Dead.

Schaff observes that funeral traditions have always been considered important, and that the dead are always given honors (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17078). Christianity, with a doctrine of the soul’s immortality and the hope of the bodily resurrection, made the care for the dead even more intense (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17087). Christians were even known to provide for burial of non-Christians who died in plagues. This showed the broader culture the regard Christians had for the dead (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17093). Death in Christianity lost the signs of loud weeping and disfigurement, for the Christian was viewed as sleeping in Christ (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17103). This also led to the consecrated cemeteries, seen as places to peacefully await the Lord’s coming (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17119).

Prayer and Fasting

10/8/2018

Mondays are for Church History
10/8/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 101. Prayer and Fasting.
As regards the life of prayer and fasting in early Christianity, Schaff finds the Church in complete unity. All activities would be accompanied by prayer, the strength of every Christian (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17029). At the same time, rather early in Christian history, some fell into the error of thinking prayer actually earned merit before God (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17034). Christians often followed Jewish custom in prayer at dawn, nine, twelve, and three, as well as often at midnight (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17039). Schaff observes that the distinction between prayers “from the heart” and “from memory” is a false dichotomy, as it is quite easy to remember those prayers which are meaningful. He finds the Lord’s Prayer commonly used (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17049). Among the Fathers, posture in prayer was not considered important, but attitude was (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17059).

Because Jews would fast on Monday and Thursday, Christians often fasted on Wednesday and Friday, to set themselves apart (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17064). In the second century, longer fasts before Easter became more common. Schaff also considers the fast or vigil before other important festivals to be an early development (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17064). By the time of the Montanists, legalistic fasting practices were becoming more common. The practice was not only carried on by ascetics but more broadly as well. However, rigorous fasting was countered by those who complained that those fasting despised the good gifts of God.

Loving Your Brother And Your Enemy

10/1/2018

Mondays are for Church History
10/1/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 100. Brother Love, and Love for Enemies.

jSchaff observes that the morality of classical antiquity was built on selfishness (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16938). We might describe the attitude today as radical individualism. People would pursue what they wanted. Winner take all. The virtues of love and humility as expressed in Christian circles were largely missing (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16943). These virtues, along with unrequited kindness and mercy, really don’t appear in the culture until the Christian period (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16962). This cultural attitude of self-interest made the love of Christians stand out in sharp contrast. Tertullian even commented that Christians could be seen to lvoe one another because the pagans hated one another (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16976). In the ante-Nicene period it was necessary for Christians to care for one another because the rest of the culture would reject them forcibly. Therefore, Chrsitian love set up a culture of care (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16986). Charitable giving was also known to be done in remote locations. Offerings were frequently sent to different national groups (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1700). Schaff notes an instance in 252 when a plague struck Carthage. The pagans fled, leaving Christians to care for the sick, which they did (Schaff 2014, Loc. 17010). Christians have a history of caring for their neighbors, regardless of the situation.

The Christian Family in the Ante-Nicene Period

9/24/2018

Mondays are for Church History
9/24/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 99. The Christian Family.

Schaff asserts that the Christian faith considered family very differently from the world at large during late antiquity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16825). Likewise the private virtues of Christianity can lead to public virtue. Schaff considers the Christian view of marriage to be so radically different than that of the broader society that celibacy may have been attractive to many. It could well have seemed easier than such a new marriage culture (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16830). Ideas such as chastity and fidelity were significant departures from Roman ideals. Schaff gives numerous examples of the honor accorded to women (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16845). At the same time, though, Schaff sees the elevation of celibacy to be excessive (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16850). This led to a devaluation of marriage. In the few writings we do have about marriage, the relationship of respect and a lifestyle of mutual prayer are seen as very important. The Christian unity in the marriage is of paramount importance (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16865). A religious solemnization of the marriage was common at an early time (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16875). Marriage between a Christian and an unbeliever was “unanimously condemned by the voice of the church in argreement with the Mosaic legislation, unless formed before conversion” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16884). Remarriage, including of widows, was generally prohibited (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16894). Again, Schaff finds the elevation of celibacy to erode the dignity of marriage.

Schaff notes that among Christians children were considered to have great dignity and value. It was not appropriate for a parent to act as a tyrant, to abuse, or to expose children (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16923). These principles also moved many Christians to care for poor and orphaned children.

Greek and Roman Families

9/17/2018

Mondays are for Church History
9/17/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 98. The Heathen Family.

Schaff asserts that in Greek and Roman paganism the only regulaly recognized virtues were political in nature. Aristotle and Plato both considered the state as sovereign even over the family. Schaff considers this a very negative situation. “This political absolutism destroys the proper dignity and rights of the individual and the family, and materially hinders the development of the domestic and private virtues” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16749). Women were kept under guard at home and considered as property rather than receiving respect in their own right. Schaff finds the ritual temple prostitutes accorded more respect than the average wife (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16768). For a while Romans treated their wives better than the Greeks. Yet their status remained low and the state of marriage was less important than civic relations within the government (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16778). Arrangements of concubinage were common, though adultery was frowned upon (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16797). All in all, Schaff describes a culture in which the sexual ethic would generally be considered obscene (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16801). Husbands bore the right to a divorce, as well as the right to inflict capital punishment on slaves or children. This was generally overcome during the rise of Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16811).

Christianity and Slavery

9/10/2018

Mondays are for Church History
9/10/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 97. The Church and Slavery.

Schaff observes a lack of regard for natural human rights among pagans (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16653). The essential relationship in society was one of power which would oppress others. Those not in power were considered the enemy to those in power. Enslavement of the poor and of enemies was the norm (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16658). Christianity fought against slavery by a moral argument of the equal dignity of all men (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16663). Due to the large number of enslaved people, there was no mass movement to end slavery. The eschatological views of the Church may also have contributed, as most would look to a future hope and not worry about earthly bondage (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16673). From the time of Constantine, some legal changes enforced more humane treatment and made it easier for a mster to formally release a slave (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16687). Conversion of slaves to Christianity was very common in the early period (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16691). Christians who were slaves could rise even to roles such as bishop. They also were recognized among the martyrs (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16691). Schaff’s conclusion is that those slaves who were Christians lived in a spiritual and moral freedom which allowed for life in society regardless of their state of enslavement (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16701). When slave owners became Christians there was a radical change in relationship as well (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16706). The equality found in Christ tended to make the master/slave relationship more like that of an employer and employee relating more or less as equals (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16715). Slaves were often set free by Chrsitian masters. Owners of large numbers of slaves are mentioned in catacomb inscriptions as releasing thousands of slaves (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16725).

A Christian View of Civic Duty

9/3/2018

Mondays are for Church History
9/3/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 96. Secular Callings and Civil Duties.
Schaff observes that Christians have freedom to enter into any normal human relationship, level of society, or occupation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16599). However, Christians historically have renounced participation in magical arts, worship of idols, and other ways of life. This would naturally separate them from some occupations (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16609). Some were accepting of Christian involvement in military service, while others were not. Generally, while government was predominantly in the hands of pagans, Christians did not aspire to such offices, which would entangle them with paganism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16619). Counter to Gibbon, who suggests Christians withdrew from society due to a disregard for society, Schaff thinks Christians were hesitant to participate in the idolatry. Otherwise, they cared greatly for society (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16633). While some blame Christians for the fall of Rome, Schaff says Rome collapsed all by itself, despite the cohesion which Christianity could provide 16638).

Christians and Roman Spectacles

8/27/2018

Mondays are for Church History
8/27/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 95. The Church and Public Amusements.

Schaff affirms that Christianity is not an austere and gloomy sort of misanthropy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16528). But the joy of Christianity is not governed by worldly affair.s The pupular amusements of late antiquity were not broadly accepted among Christians. The theater had become a place to celebrate lust. The circus had become an occasion to look for violent displays or the death of competitors (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16547). While public opinion embraced the theatrical spectacles, Christians, with a recognition of the dignity of human life (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16571) would not only avoid public entertainments, but also warn against them. The arguments Schaff finds in favor of Christian participation in public entertainments are much the same as the arguments heard to this day. Gradually, Christians were able to reach positions of influence in which they could limit some of the entertainments which were accessible (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16590).

Christian Versus Pagan Morality

8/20/2018

Mondays are for Church History
8/20/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 94. Christian Morality.

Considering the various philosophers, Schaff concludes that all their work was based on human nature, which he views as fallen. The only valid means of progress was a morality rooted in religion, but it needed to be a religion which restrained evil and cared for others (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16468). This he finds only in Christianity. “The superiority of the principles of Christian ethics over the heathen standards of morality even under its most favorable forms is universally admitted” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16480). However, history does not always admit the importance of moral and spiritual concepts in society. Much of the distinctive Christian life is normally invisible to all but the most attentive observers. Schaff does see the Christian apologists describing the Christian life to their critics (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16496). The overwhelming picture is of people who strive to maintain positive relationships and avoid criminal activity. Schaff does concede that Christians before Constantine would have tamptations to sin, just like all Christians. However, in general, they were more likely than others to live a morally upright life
16522).

A Christian Review of Plutarch

8/13/2018

Mondays are for Church History
8/13/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 93. Plutarch,

Schaff finds Plutarch an interesting character. He even calls him “the greatest biographer and moralist of classical antiquity” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16425). He lived about AD. 50-125 in Boeotia, writing and lecturing about moral philosophy. “He recognized a supreme God, and also the subordinate divinities of the Hellenic religion” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16435). Plutarch appears to know nothing at all of Christianity, though he does have some superficial knowledge of Judaism. Schaff considers Plutarch’s morality very similar to a Christian moral framework. He thought of religion as the root of morality (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16441). Schaff refers to Plutarch’s The Delays of Divine Justice as a valuable work for understanding Plutarch’s view of the role of religion and the danger of ignoring religious faith (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16452). Some of the observations are remarkably close to a Christian view of moral philosophy. However, Schaff is clear that Christianity would not excuse Plutarch for a failure to trust Jesus. A high moral standard does not rescue us from sin.

A Christian Review of Marcus Aurelius

8/6/2018

Mondays are for Church History
8/6/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 92. Marcus Aurelius.

Marcus Aurelius was emperor of Rome from 161-180. He was, in Schaff’s words, “the last and best representative of Stoicism” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16359). He seemed at one and the same time to write like a polytheist, a deist, and a pantheist. His theological insight was muddled, but he clearly saw religion as the foundation of morality (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16370). Schaff views his gentle moral character as very similar to Christianity. There is more of a humanitarian concern in his writings than in many other pagans (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16380). Schaff makes a number of quotations showing a concern with a simple and kind generosity. Schaff is clear, though. “The cosmopolitan philosophy of Marcus Aurelius had no sympathy with Christianity, and excluded from its embrace the most innocent and most peaceful of his subjects (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16402). He seemed to consider Christians as fanatics who acted foolishly. Schaff goes on to describe his family life, which did not show continence in marriage and which brought up a son who was a negative emperor.

A Christian Review of Epictetus

7/30/2018

Mondays are for Church History
7/30/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 91. Epictetus.

Epictetus, from the second half of the first century, came to Rome as a slave (Schaff 2014, Loc.16303). He eventually gained his freedom and set himself up as a teacher of Stoicism before being banished from Rome shortly before 90 A.D. (Schaff 2014, Loc.16314). He spent the rest of his life in Epirus, though he was invited back to Rome in 117. Epictetus was known for a commitment to a life of poverty. He discouraged marriage, as it could distract one from his real purpose (Schaff 2014, Loc.16320). Epictetus’ teachings survive in accounts written by Flavius Arranus (Schaff 2014, Loc.16325). According to his philosophy, the work of the philosopher is to guide people in righteousness, “that they might learn to be happy even in utter want of earthly possessions” (Schaff 2014, Loc.16330). Schaff considers his teaching of an inner morality and the transitory nature of the physical to be very Socratic in its character. Epictetus seems at times to be aware of Christianity, but not influenced by it (Schaff 2014, Loc.16346).

Stoicism vs. Christianity

7/23/2018

Mondays are for Church History
7/23/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 90. Stoic Morality.
Having considered some of the strong negatives of paganism, Schaff turns “to the bright side of heathen morals” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16271). He notes in particular Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, and Plutarch, who showed considerable virtue. Schaff does consider the fact that by the second century there was some Christian influence on Roman culture. This may have been absorbed to some degree by some cultural leaders. Epictetus, a slave, and Marcus Aurelius, an emperor, were both followers of Stoic philosophy as exemplified by Zeno (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16282). Schaff notes Stoicism as near to Christianity in the purity of its virtues, but farthest away by its call for self-reliance, which results in pride (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16287).

Roman Paganism and Morality

7/16/2018

Mondays are for Church History
7/16/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 8. Christian life in Contrast with Pagan Corruption.” Sections 88-103, Loc. 16158-17158.

§ 88. Literature.
Schaff presents a lightly annotated bibliography of sources for life and customs of various people who interacted during the time of primitive Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16158).

§ 89. Moral Corruption of the Roman Empire.
Schaff makes his view clear. He recognizes Christianity as the source of holiness. “Christianity is not only the revelation of truth, but also the fountain of holiness under the unceasing inspiration of the spotless example of its Founder, which is more powerful than all systems of moral philosophy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16186). It regenerates individuals and whole cultures. To show this clearly, Schaff contrasts it with various evidence from non-Christian antiquity. Imperial Rome around the time of Christ offered considerable safety, stability, and prosperity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16197). At the same time, slavery, abuse, poverty, and despair were very common (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16208). The culture was in decline and, given the excesses in society, the decline could not be reversed (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16229). The failings of some of the emperors are well known in popular culture. Scaff notes that the decadent behavior and attitudes spread from the ruling classes to the public at large (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16255). The move from a once glorious nation to a crumbling ruin was not difficult to foresee.

Understanding the Catacombs

7/9/2018

Mondays are for Church History
7/9/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 7. The Church in the Catacombs. (Includes sections 82-87, loc. 15829-16152).

§ 86. Epitaphs.
Epitaphs are often a challenge. They attempt to summarize a person’s life for future generations, using just a few words (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16018). Many of the inscriptions have been published and studied. A great challenge to scholars is the simple fact that many early epitaphs are undated (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16034). Regardless of the date, Christian epitaphs regularly express hope and the concept of immortality. Some of the language, predictably, is similar to epitaphs of the pagans. The care for and sorrow over the deceased is an important theme (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16095). Schaff appends a selection of epitaphs in translation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16056). He then describes a cemetery and inscription discovered near Autun in 1839 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16801). His description illustrates some of the challenges inherent in cemetery studies, as dating of inscriptions and remains can be very difficult.

§ 87. Lessons of the Catacombs.
Schaff observes that a study of the catacombs teaches the modern observer much the same lessons as it did those in antiquity. The places are solemn, somber, and full of an association with sacred things (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16103). Both Roman and Protestant writers have tried to use the catacombs for their own purposes of arguments. Solving these problems is beyond the scope of archaeological inquiry, though more investigation into the ages and symbolism of the artifacts will continue to build context. Dating and interpretation will help to link artifacts with their appropriate historical settings (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16125). Significance of various symbols has been known to change over time. Understanding them is a challenge. Schaff also emphasizes the view of eschatological hope expressed in the catacombs. Death for the Christian is merely a time of rest until the resurrection (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16141).

The Catacombs as Artful Resting Places

7/2/2018

Mondays are for Church History
7/2/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 7. The Church in the Catacombs. (Includes sections 82-87, loc. 15829-16152).

§ 84. Description of the Catacombs.
“The Roman catacombs are long and narrow passages or galleries and cross-galleries excavated in the bowels of the earth in the hills outside and around the city, for the burial of the dead” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15952). They are multi-level and filled with tombs of different types. Schaff places the size of the Roman catacombs at “hundreds of miles, and the number of graves [by] millions” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15963). These are separate cemeteries, probably originally associated with different congregations. Schaff observes the piecemeal nature of the artifacts and the challenges inherent in studying items which have been relocated (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15985). The use of different vessels is also largely a mystery.

§ 85. Pictures and Sculptures.
Painting, sculpture, and inscriptional remains provide a wealth of information (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16001). The more sophisticated works belong to the earlier period, before a general decline in the quality of artwork. The Christian symbolism can be identified throughout. Much of the sculpture is found on sarcophagi and date from the Nicene age and after (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16007). These are the burial places of wealthy and powerful people, many known in general historical sources (Schaff 2014, Loc. 16013).

Catacombs

6/25/2018

Mondays are for Church History
6/25/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 7. The Church in the Catacombs. (Includes sections 82-87, loc. 15829-16152).

§ 82. Literature.
Schaff provides an extensive and lightly annotated bibliography (Schaff 2014, Loc.15829). This includes work based on archaeology, literature, and epigraphy.

§ 83. Origin and History of the Catacomb.
Schaff classifies the discovery of Roman catacombs as a very important development in scholarshipo. Ancient authors and, therefore, historical scholars, have largely been silent about these places (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15886). A catacomb is an underground burial chamber. Some were placed near quarries, while others were independently excavated. Almost all “are of Christian origin, and were excavated for the express purpose of Christian burial” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15892). Mythic figures adapted to Christian use appear along with specifically Christian symbols. Schaff sees the existence of these places as a sign of Roman toleration. They would not have been excavated secretly (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15897). The Romans were generally permissive of burial societies and other attempts to lay the dead to rest. The tombs resemble those used in Jewish customs. These customs were not unknown to Romans but were not common by the period of the catacombs (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15908). Schaff does not express an opinion about why Christians built catacombs and then allowed the practice to decline in the fourth century. It may have been related to a concern of graves being desecrated (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15914). The catacombs did not seem to be places for corporate worship. However, in the Nicene age, some had chapels built where some pious Christians could go for prayer (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15919). In the various invasions of Rome and by moves of relic hunters tombs were damaged, robbed, and relocated (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15935). The system was rediscovered in the late sixteenth century. By the 19th century serious studies of the catacombs were under way (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15946).

Christ and Mary in Early Christian Artwork

6/18/2018

Mondays are for Church History
6/18/18

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 6. Christian Art” (Includes sections 75-81).

§ 80. Allegorical Representations of Christ.

Jesus himself is not depicted very early, probably because the apostles never told us what he looked like (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15755). As someone who was seen both in a state of humiliation and exaltation, Jesus may have appeared very differently at various times (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15760). Once he is depicted, he most often appears with sheep or fish, referring to events in the Gospels.

§ 81. Pictures of the Virgin Mary.

Schaff asserts that there are pictures of Mary which may date back to the second or third century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15804). She normally appears with the baby Jesus and others related to the Nativity. It is not until the fifth century that Mary appears as the queen of heaven, the one praying for us (Schaff 2014, Loc. 15820).