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More Growth and Persecution

10/16/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
10/16/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 2. Persecution of Christianity and Christian Martyrdom.” (continued)


§17. Trajan. A.D. 98-117 - Christianity Forbidden - Martyrdom of Symeon of Jerusalem, and Ignatius of Antioch.

After a brief bibliography, Schaff notes that Trajan was a very good emperor. However, he misunderstood Christianity. It was included in lists of prohibited secret societies (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12744). An exchange of letters between Pliny and Trajan in 109-111 describes some pagan attitudes toward early Christians. They preferred to ignore Christianity but punish it when it became evident (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12765). In this view, Schaff discusses the martyrdoms of Symeon of Jerusalem and Ignatius of Antioch, during Trajan’s reign.

§18. Hadrian. A.D. 117-138

Schaff speaks highly of Hadrian in general, but considers him morally and emotionally unstable. While he was not friendly to Christianity, he was not uniformly hostile (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12808).

§19. Antoninus Pius. A.D. 137-161. The Martyrdom of Polycarp.

In his bibliography Schaff notes the Martyrdom of Polycarp, calling it “the oldest, simplest, and least objectionable of the martyr-acts” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12821). Because of this document, Polycarp frequently appears in scholarly work. Antoninus Pius was generally protective of Christians. However, popular opinion against Christianity was very strong at his time (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12834). Polycarp’s death is generally assigned to 155, in Smyrna. He knew the apostle John and is considered an important link between the apostles and the 2nd century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12847).

§20. Persecutions under Marcus Aurelius. A.D. 161-180.

Marcus Aurelius is known to have written a series of wise sayings late in life (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12847). Schaff notes that Aurelius was generally good natured by that he had little care for Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12867). As a Stoic philosopher he rejected the idea of the resurrection out of hand (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12874). There were a number of persecutions in this time, but nothing throughout the empire. However, Schaff does consider that the written record of criticisms of Christianity shows its rise in importance (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12883). Schaff recounts several instances of persecution in brief.

§21. Condition of the Church from Septimius Severus to Philip the Arabian. A.D. 193-249.

As the third century began, Septimius Severus was at the start of a line of emperors who were not as committed to the Roman gods. However, they pursued policies opposed to the spread of Judaism and Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12919). This led to another spate of persecutions.

§22. Persecutions under Decius, and Valerian. A.D. 249-260. Martyrdom of Cyprian.

Under the emperor Decius Trajan (249-251) there was a very heavy persecution of Christians (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12957). Because of the pivotal role of bishops in the Church, they were especially hard-hit. Some chose to work in public and be arrested as a testimony to Christ. Some went into hiding in order to be available for their critical ministry tasks (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12976).

§12. Temporary Repose. A.D. 260-303.

After 260, Christianity was relatively well received in the Roman empire. Christianity grew rapidly. Congregations gathered in buildings dedicated to worship. They also gathered books and special vessels for the Sacrament (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13004). At the same time, Schaff says, discipline and commitment waned.

§24. The Diocletian Persecution, A.D. 303-311.

The coming to power of Diocletian in 284 set the stage for a new period of persecution. Though he is normally considered a very capable leader, Schaff notes he was eventually persuaded to issue edicts against Christianity in 303 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13048). While some have suggested this was a reaction against Christian attempts to take over government, Schaff thinks it unlikely. Christians were known to be politically passive in that time period (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13057). Schaff also notes the extent of the persecution was unprecedented. Eusebius, an eyewitness, describes it in detail (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13067).

§25. The Edicts of Toleration. A.D. 311-313.

Galerius, the advisor of Diocletian who was likely responsible for the persecution, arranged an edict of toleration in 311, because the persecution had not succeeded. The edict also asked Christians to pray for their rulers (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13104). The edicts of toleration were followed quickly by a conflict between Maxentius, who held Rome, and Constantine, from the West (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13114). Constantine overcame Maxentius and pursued toleration and religious pluralism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13123). Constantine is normally considered the first of the Christian emperors.

§26. Christian Martyrdom.

Schaff observes the heroic Christian response to the martyrdoms up to the 4th century. Christians did not engage in revolution, but in witness of Christ as the Savior (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13151). During the times of persecution Schaff notes three types of people who denied the faith. Some would make offerings, some would turn over sacred books, some would bribe magistrates. These were excommunicated. Sometimes they were restored to the Church, sometimes not (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13171). Some others, of course, stood firm in the faith and were either killed or tortured.

Schaff notes that the early persecution of Christians is often compared to the various more recent Christian use of force, generally by Rome against Protestants and other sects (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13199). He concludes that Christians have not always been innocent of crimes, but that a true biblical faith does not endorse violent means to achieve an earthly kingdom of God.

§27. Rise of the Worship of Martyrs and Relics.

Christians quickly remembered the martyrs. This practice fairly soon became worship, both of the martyrs and their relics (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13264). The day of the martyr’s death was remembered as his day of heavenly birth. Martyrdom was often seen as a special baptism which earned virtue (Schaff 2014, Loc. 13273). Because of this special merit, the prayers of the departed would be sought on behalf of the living.

(Schaff 2014, Loc.
§101

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Periods of Persecution and Martyrdom

10/9/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
10/9/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 2. Persecution of Christianity and Christian Martyrdom.”

§12. Literature.
Schaff presents a lightly annotated bibliography of sources for the  period A.D. 100-325 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12537).

§13. General Survey.
Schaff compares the periodic persecutions of the early Christians to the crucufixion and resurrection. There were times of forewarning, actual attack, suffering, then relief (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12562). The persecutions began in the Jewish world, then spread to within the Gentile world. At issue was the fact that one side or the other must desist. The worldviews were inherently incompatible (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12571). Schaff details a number of the persecutions which were widespread, but notes that most were very localized and short-lived (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12580). Because the persecutions brought out the heroic character of Christian faith, Christianity survived. It was purified by the opposition of those who would destroy it Further, Schaff notes, the success of Christianity opened the door for religious liberty (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12589). Christianity allowed for conscience to be a sacred right. This contrasted with the Greek and then Roman view that the state had absolute authority. Schaff does admit that Christians, after Constantine, tended to forget the importance of freedom of conscience (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12609). Yet it is present in the foundation of Christianity.

§14. Jewish Persecution.
Schaff now provides an annotated bibliography of sources pertaining to Jewish persecution. He then discusses the specific conflicts. Schaff’s assessment of the situation is that Jews, having provoked God through persecution of Christians, then received retaliation at various times in the early second century. Under Hadrian, the Roman government asserted its authority and commitment to the traditional gods (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12627). The rejection of Judaism continued even under the Christian emperors. Partly as a reaction to the Roman hostility toward Judaism, by the late second century, the growth of the Talmud spoke in traditional and anti-Christian terms of pure Judaism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12637). Schaff comments as follows. “The Talmud is the slow growth of several centuries. It is a chaos of Jewish learning, wisdom, and folly, a continent of rubbish, with hidden pearls of true maxims and poetic parables . . . It is the Old Testament misinterpreted and turned against the New, in fact, though not in form” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12646).

§15. Causes of Roman Persecution.
While Roman did actively try to destroy its opponents, the government’s role was fairly tolerant of differences of religious thought (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12655). Jews had some protection, though not promotion. While Christianity was considered a sect of Judaism, it also had some protection, particularly when practiced by citizens (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12665). However, as it came to be known as its own religion, it was considered unlawful. After all, Christianity rejected the deities who had allegedly brought Rome to power (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12675). The Christian refusal to participate in what they considered to be idolatry was considered insulting to the Roman religion (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12694). The Christians would not give the honor considered appropriate to the deities or the emperor. This led to a deep distrust. As a result, the Romans would readily accept rumors about Christians, such as incest, cannibalism, and the bringing of plagues upon the people (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12703).

§16. Condition of the Church before the Reign of Trajan.
Schaff engages in a brief review of  first century imperial attitudes toward Christianity. Apparently the emperors were aware of the story of Christ’s resurrection. They were uncertain whether to consider Jesus a god or his followers as revolutionaries making a novel claim. By the time of Domitian (81-96), we find an emperor who determined Christianity to be a serious crime. The fact that he prosecuted numerous Christians, including political leaders, indicates that Christianity had been accepted by many and powerful people (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12722).

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Worldwide Christianity in the Early Period

10/2/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
10/2/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 1. Spread of Christianity.”

§6. Means of Propagation.
Schaff notes that there is little information about missionaries until the start of the Medieval period. However, by the early fourth century the Roman empire was at least nominally Christian (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12380). He sees this as a natural growth, occurring simply because of the commitment of individual Christians and congregations. Along with word of mouth, the Scriptures were widely trnslated and distributed (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12399).

§7. Extent of Christianity in the Roman Empire.
Schaff quotes Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Origen to indicate that Christianity was known in one way or another by people all over the Roman empire (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12408). Schaff observes that “the fact that the Christians were a closely united body, fresh, vigorous, hopeful, and daily increasing, while the heathen were for the most part a loose aggregation, daily diminishing, made the true prospective strength of the church much greater” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12418). The unified witness of Christ also led to other types of unity and thus economic and political advances in communities where there were large concentrations of Christians.

§8. Christianity in Asia.
During the first three centuries of the Christian period, Christianity spread broadly through Asia Minor. By the early second century much of what we consider the Middle East had an established church. The third century saw a spread into Armenia, Arabia, and possibly India (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12437). By 325 Constantinople became a center of Christianity. Schaff notes that the forceful spread of Islam hindered the growth and brought many Christians into bondage, but that there remains hope that the Christian message will again become clear in the region.

§9. Christianity in Egypt.
Egypt had long been a center of Jewish learning. In the apostolic period, there is evidence for the spread of Christianity into Egypt as well (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12446). The evangelist Mark is thought to have founded the church in Alexandria. There were bishops and theological schools there from the early Christian period (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12456). Again, Schaff notes that Islam has disrupted Christianity since 640, but that there has been a continued Christian presence.

§10. Christianity in North Africa.
The North African area around Carthage was largely a migrant population, having come from the Semitic peoples. Schaff notes a Romanization of the region. Due to the Roman dominance, the Phoenecians, who spread throughout the Mediterranean and especially around Carthage, became part of Latin Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12474). This, again, was interrupted by Islam, though it had suffered under the Vandals as early as 439. Before the Islamic invasions a broad swath of northern Africa was Christian, with duly established bishops in many areas (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12491). Augustine, one of the leaders of early fifth century Christian thought, was from this area.

§11. Christianity in Europe.
Schaff traces Christianity as tending to move from East to West, gaining its most important center in Rome by the mid third century. He estimates about 50-60,000 Christians in Rome itself in the mid third century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12511). Christianity spread throughout modern day France by the end of the second century. Schaff notes Christianity in Spain during the third century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12520). Irenaeus and Tertullian assert that there was a Christian witness in Germany and Britain as early as the second century. This was certainly an influential region in world Christianity from an early period (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12529).

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Christianity Spreads, Accepted or Not

9/25/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
9/25/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 1. Spread of Christianity.”

§3. Literature.

Schaff notes that there are not particular statistics in ancient literature, but he does list a number of sources, both in the ecclesiastical and secular literature, pertaining to the spread of Christianity. He follows this with additional works commenting on the early time of growth.

§4. Hindrances and Helps.

Christianity prior to Constantine was not recognized, then was considered a religion which could be punished. The Jewish origins and the outsider status of many followers of Christ created a highly negative attitude toward Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12278). However, Schaff notes that Christianity flourished even as people gave their lives for the Christian faith. Early Christians considered martyrdom as a “proof of the truth and holiness of the Christian religion” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12290).

§5. Causes of the Success of Christianity.

“The chief positive cause of the rapid spread and ultimate triumph of Christianity is to be found in its own absolute intrinsic worth, as the universal religion of salvation, and in the perfect teaching and example of its divine-human Founder, who proves himself to every believing heart a Saviour from sin and a giver of eternal life” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12310). Schaff sees Christianity as self-validating and applicable to all types of people everywhere. When compared to the relatively hopeless situation of Roman paganism of the day, it seems natural that people would flock to Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12313). Schaff notes that Gibbon, Lecky, and others have seen in Christianity a powerfulsocial force (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12340).

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The Ante-Nicene Age as a Battlefield

9/18/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
9/18/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Preface to the Third Edition Revised.”
§2. “General Character of Ante-Nicene Christianity” Loc. 12175-12259.

Schaff describes the character of the Church after the Apostolic age as one in transition. He sees it as an abrupt change, which should draw attention to the value of Scripture as opposed to human wisdom (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12182). Yet even when under persecution, the Church held firm to the Scripture. The actions of believers to preserve the New Testament stand out as faithful efforts (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12189). The second and third centuries saw the rise of theologicans and apologiests who would explain the Christian faith in detail (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12195). The Christians would integrate into societies  but always find a way to live out their Christian distinctives. With a quote from the “Letter to Diognetus” Schaff speaks of the kindness and charity found among Christians (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12208).

Schaff notes that “the ante-Nicene age has been ever since the Reformation a battle-field between Catholic and Evangelical historians and polemics, and is claimed by both for their respective creeds” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12228). Rather than viewing it as a battle ground, Schaff sees it as a “common root.” The Church was concerned with a defense against paganism. It quickly developed an episcopal structure (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12241). By the fourth century there was a great deal of consistency in both doctrine and practice.

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The Earliest Christians - Many Manuscripts Discovered

9/11/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
9/11/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Preface to the Third Edition Revised.”

Schaff notes the publication, recent at his time, of the manuscript of the Didache, which has sparked numerous revisions in his work and that of other scholars (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12026). Schaff’s third edition came out in 1885, but a fourth in 1886. A fifth was released in 1889 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12044). This volume covers the period from the end of the apostolic age to the time of the Nicene Council in 325. Schaff surveys many developments in scholarship during the late 19th century. A number of manuscripts had been discovered, many of which shed light on discussions. These included “the crowning discovery of all, the Codex Sinaiticus, the only complete uncial MS of the Greek Testament” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12063).

Along with manuscript discoveries, Schaff summarizes the many types of scholarship which bolossomed in the late 19th century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12070). not only were there monumenta developments in literary theory and research, but the practice of archaeology was becoming more popular (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12076). Researchers had begun studying artifacts in the context of their original location.

Schaff continues in §1 with a bibliography for the Ante-Nicene Age (Schaff 2014, Loc. 12096). As always, he annotates some of the references to guide in interpretation.

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New Testament Literature - Part 5

9/4/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
9/4/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 12, “The New Testament” Loc. 8053-12025. (continued)

§92 “The Epistle to the Romans” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10641).

The letter to the Romans emphasizes the Gospel as what every individual in every nation needs (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10641). It is the most comprehensive and systematic of the epistles. Schaff suggests the variants found in 15:33; 16:20, 24, 27; and 1:7, 15 may result from early copies of the letter being modified slightly for delivery to different locations.


§93 “The Epistles of the Captivity” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10679).

While Paul was imprisoned in Rome from 61-63 he wrote “to the Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, and Philippians” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10679). These letters often focus on life as a prisoner for Christ.

§94 “The Epistle to the Colossians” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10707).

Schaff observbes that Colossae, Laodicea, and Hierapolis are very close to one another. The letter to the Colossians was very likely circulated quickly (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10707). Paul had been in the area but it is not clear whether he had actually met the Colossians (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10732). The letter was prompted by a type of ascetic Gnosticism arising there (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10742). By describing the true doctrine of Christ Paul refutes the heresy. Schaff compares the idea of “fullness” as found in Paul and in the Gnostics (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10751 ff). Christ is the true fullness of God (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10787.

§95 “The Epistle to the Ephesians” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10793).

Paul wrote to the Ephesians about the church as the place where God places all his fullness in Christ (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10800). It is the work of the Holy Spirit in the Church to show the fullness of Christ to the believer (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10819). This is akin to the way John portrays the Holy Spirit. The letter was apparently meant to circulate in the region, as the location is not attested uniformly and there are no personal greetings to individuals (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10829). The letter shows a mature complexity of sentence style, equivalent to the mature portrayal of the life in Christ (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10839).

§96 “Colossians and Ephesians Compared and Vindicated” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10874).

Colossians and Ephesians were written about the same time. Both were delivered by Tychicus (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10875). Schaff notes that Colossians arose from an emergency in dealing with Gnosticism while Ephesians is more thoughtful and irenic, not attacking a problem. While Colossians is primarily Christological, Ephesians is more ecclesiological (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10885). While there are some disputes about Pauline authorship Schaff affirms it (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10894). He goes on to show several arguments against Pauline authorship as dubious at best.

§97 “The Epistle to the Philippians” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10931).

Philippi was a cosmopolitan, wealthy community and home to a prominent military base (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10931). There was a thriving church after Paul visited. Paul maintained a very friendly relationship with the church (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10950). The Epistle is tender and personal. There is no doctrinal dispute, except when in chapter 3 Paul cautions against legalism and antinomianism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1096). The church seems to have remained strong and faithful for a long time until a decline in the Middle Ages (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10980).

§98 “The Epistle to Philemon” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10990).

Schaff identifies Philemon as a convert of Paul living at Colossae (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10990). The letter likely accompanied Colossians. Schaff points out that Christianity changes evils such as slavery from within by showing the commonality of men (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11010). Schaff observes that at his time the Christian world has all but eliminated slavery, while the non-Christian religions embrace slavery (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11010). The great difference between Christian appeal for clemency and pagan appeals from a similar time period is that while the Christian can appeal to Christ’s love, the pagan can only appeal o someone’s good temper (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11031).

§99 “The Pastoral Epistles” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11051).

The two letters to Timothy and the one to Titus are parting instructions from Paul to his disciples. “They show us the transition of the apostolic church from primitive simplicity to a more definite system of doctrine and form of government” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11051). The writings tend to be personal and emphasize methods for care of churches. They have almost always been recognized as the work of Paul (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11065). Schaff dates these letters either in 54-57 or in 62 or shortly after. The text shows signs of early composition from prison in Rome (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11123). Schaff considers the letters to be reliably written by Paul.

§100 “The Epistle to the Hebrews” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11184).

Schaff provides a substantial bibliography for Hebrews, then observes that despite its obscure origins, “it is clear and deep in its knowledge of Christ” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11215). The goal of the letter is to strengthen Christians in their faith and guard against apostasy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11225). It does this by pointing consistently to the superiority of Christ (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11235). Schaff views the Greek style of Hebrews to be very pure and classical (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11256). The occasion was a time of persecution in which Jewish Christians would have a strong temptation to return to Judaism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11278). The greeting suggests the author was in Italy probably around 63 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11288). Schaff discusses various views of the authorship (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11299 ff), considering first Paul, then one of Paul’s pupils, then joint authorship by Paul and a pupil. Schaff’s conclusion is that there are arguments for and against Paul, Barnabas, Luke, Apollos, and Silas. The authorship is uncertain (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11371). Schaff appends some notes about the location of Hebrews in the canon, the vocabulary used, and the title.

§101 “The Apocalypse” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11402).

After a brief bibliography Schaff observes, “The literature on the Apocalypse, especially in English, is immense, but mostly impository rather than expository, and hence worthless or even mischievous, because confounding and misleading” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11423). Revelation is the only New Testament prophetic book. Schaff views the opening and closing portions as very clear, with the middle very dark and confusing (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11434). God is shown as the one governing all the affairs of all times. Schaff notes many parallels between Daniel and Revelation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11454). He also compares the arrangement to Job (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11465). The theme is that of Jesus’ coming for his people (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11484). The book is organized around a prologue, a series of seven visions, and an epilogue (Schaff 2014, Loc. 11500).

This is the end of the the first volume of the eight volume work.

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New Testament Literature - Part 4

8/28/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
8/28/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 12, “The New Testament” Loc. 8053-12025. (continued)

§88 “The Epistles of Paul” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10416).

Paul was not only prolific in missionary work but also in his writing, leaving us thirteen Epistles (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10417). Throughout, Paul shows a care for the churches and individuals addressed which is striking (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10426). Paul’s epistles were written between about 52 and 67 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10438). The chronology can largely be worked out based on internal statements compared with the record of Paul’s journeys found in Acts (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10444). Schaff orders them as follows: Thessalonians, Galatians, Corinthians, Romans, Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, Philippians, and the the Pastoral Epistles last (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10454). He also arranges the letters according to their progression of doctrine (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1046). The style is not formally elegant but shows a forthright and expressive attitude (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10463). Schaff goes on to note the overall reactions of various scholars to Paul’s work.

§89 “The Epistles to the Thessalonians” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10500).

Paul visited Thessalonica in 52 or 53 and quickly planted a flourishing congregation which influenced the rest of Byzantium (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10500). Paul wrote two letters back to the Thessalonians from Corinth, encouraging the saints not to lose heart if Jesus did not come immediately (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10509). The overall theme is that of hope in persecution (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10519). In our times of trial, God has promised to watch over us and guard us.

§90 “The Epistles to the Corinthians” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10528).

Corinth was a wealthy cosmopolitan center. After the church was established there, questions arose which led to Paul’s letters (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10538). 1 Corinthians was written in Ephesus in 57 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10547). There was apparently another, earlier letter, now lost. 1 Corinthians answers various questions asked by the Corinthians. Themes revolve around living out the presence of Christ among his people. 2 Corinthians was also written in 57 from Macedonia (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10575). The first letter had provoked some responses which deserved correction.

§91 “The Epistle to the Galatians” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10603).

Galatians and Romans are similar in their themes of sin and redemption. “But Galatians is a rapid sketch and the child of deep emotion, Romans an elaborate treatise and the mature product of calm reflexion” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10603). Galatians was written to people of Gallic ancestry, having migrated to Asia Minor. It was written either from Ephesus in 54-57 or from Corinth shortly afterward (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10622). The theme is the freedom Christians have in Jesus (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10632).

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New Testament Literature, Part 3

8/21/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
8/21/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 12, “The New Testament” Loc. 8053-12025. (continued)

§85 “The Acts of the Apostles” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10087).

After a brief bibliography Schaff notes the clear relationship between the third Gospel and Acts with the same addressee and a stated continuation of events (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10103). Acts is a history which puts a consistently positive outlook on all the events recorded. It ends triumphantly, prior to the death of Peter or Paul (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10115). The text apears to come from the hand of Luke, the companion of Paul (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10135). The book makes no mention of the epistles or the later organization of the Church. This likely points to early composition (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10146). It serves as a literary connection between the Gospels and Epistles (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10151). Acts looks at the church from the outside while the Epistles look from the inside (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10167). Acts has many points of contact with people, places and events known from other histories, making it clearly contemporaneous. Some have suggested the book is intended as a later work attempting to create peace between Jewish and Gentile elements (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10254). Schaff suggests that these contentions were relatively minor and short-lived and that Acts is in fact a truthful and charitable account.

§86 “The Epistles” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10285).

Unlike the sermons recorded in the New Testament, “The Epistles are addressed to baptized converts, and aim to strengthen them in their faith, and, by brotherly instruction, exhortation, rebuke, and consolation, to build up the church in all Christian graces on the historical foundation of the teaching and example of Christ” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10291). The letters were occasional in nature and likely represent only some of the correspondence (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10298).

§87. “The Catholic Epistles” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10316).

In older manuscripts, after Acts we usually find James, 1 & 2 Peter, 1-3 John, and Jude before Paul’s letters (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10322). These letters are more general in nature and are not as clearly directed toward one congregation or individuals. Except for 1 Peter and 1 John all belong to the antilegomena, not always accepted until the end of the 4th century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10337).

James was written from Jerusalem prior to the destruction of the city in 70. It has many qualities found also in Matthew, including a vigorous exhortation to holy living (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10341).

Peter’s first epistle, sent from “Babylon,” reflects an older and more gentle Peter than the viwe of him we find in Acts. The doctrine articulates a mediating position between that of James and that of Paul (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10369). Second Peter, shortly before Peter’s death, assures the reader of Peter’s agreement with paul (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10369). Many dispute Peter’s authorship, though Schaff considers it to be by Peter (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10385).

Jude is very similar to 2 Peter. It refers to an apocryphal story and opposes Gnosticism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10388).

First John shows all the signs of being written by the author of John’s Gospel (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10397). It is one of the homolegomena. 2 and 3 John are among the antilegomena. Schaff sees adequate similarity to the style of 1 John that he considers  them to be authentic (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10407).

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New Testament Literature - Part 2

8/14/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
8/14/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 12, “The New Testament” Loc. 8053-12025. (continued)

§80 “Matthew” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8716).

After a brief bibliography Schaff reviews the identity of Matthew. His actions outside of the Gospels are not known with much clarity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8733). Because of his position as a tax collector Schaff makes some inferences about his background and social standing. The Gospel is very Hebraic in nature (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8756). It has some strongly topical elements in its construction (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8778). Schaff goes on to detail the structure. The Gospel was evidently known in the patristic period (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8825). Based on Papias’ comments, Schaff concludes that a Hebrew version of Matthew’s Gospel existed before the Greek version we now have. The Greek version does not seem to be a translation from a Hebrew work (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8860).

§ 81 “Mark” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8871).

After a brief bibliography, Schaff introduces Mark as “a connecting link between Peter and Paul, but more especially a pupil and companion of Peter” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8883). Church tradition adds to the biblical information of Mark’s life that he wrote the Gospel in Rome around the time of Peter’s death, then founded a church in Alexandria (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8899). The Gospel document is brief but tends to give significant detail of incidents (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8922). The text is energetic and forceful (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8945). The doctrine is fair and balanced, with many influences of Paul and Peter (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8974). His style is not that of a polished rhetorician or author but shows excellent observation of events (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8980). Schaff concludes from the many unique details of Mark that it “is a thoroughly independent and original work” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9019). Schaff continues with notes about the authenticity of Mark 16:9-20 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9042). After considerable commentary on different theories Schaff leaves the passage as inconclusive.

§82 “Luke” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9146).

“As Mark is inseparably associated with Peter, so is luke with Paul. There was, in both cases, a foreordained correspondence and congeniality between the apostle and the historian or co-laborer” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9168). Schaff considers Luke’s Gospel to be the most literary of the four. He identifies similarities between Mark and Luke but considers it to be due to personal acquaintance. “No doubt there was frequent conference between the two, but no allusion is made to each other’s writings, which tends to prove that they were composed independently during the same period, or not far apart” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9172). Luke refers to himself only obliquely in his writings but is treated with respect by Paul (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9178). As a physician he would have had access to a variety of people. Many suggest Luke’s origin in Antioch (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9183). Later traditions suggest that Luke lived to the age of 84, travelled a good deal, and was eventually crucified in Greece (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9198). In writing the Gospel, Schaff says, “It is certain that he had no knowledge of our Greek Matthew . . . “ (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9214). The dedication to Theophilus likely refers to a noteworthy individual, possibly a catechumen or convert (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9236). Schaff views the work to be refined and well constructed, reflecting the Greek historians (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9251). The Gospel is strongly chronological in nature (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9267). Schaff provides an outline. He then observes as main themes free grace and universal salvation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9298). Schaff details these ideas, then identifies the tone of the writing. “Luke is the best Greek writer among the Evangelists” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9360). His tone and style vary based on the subject. The authorship, though not asserted as early as Matthew or Mark, is still ascribed to Luke early and consistently (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9386). Schaff discusses Luke’s credibility. His writing has been seen as an attempt at harmonizing various elements (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9401). Schaff considers rather that Luke was simply reporting what he saw and learned, not engaging in polemics. Schaff places the composition between 58 and 63, with publication after Paul’s death (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9417).

§ 83 “John” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9463).

Schaff refers to John’s Gospel as “the best” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9463). He describes the time and composition using picturesque language. This Gospel is later than and very different from the other accounts. “If John wrote long after the Synoptists, we could, of course, not expect from him a repetition of the story already so well told by three independent witnesses. But what is surprising is the fact that, coming last, he should produce the most original of all the Gospels” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9482). Schaff notes a different tone and content of John’s Gospel (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9492). Early witnesses affirm composition in Ephesus, at least in part as a response to the growing Gnosticism in the very late 1st century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9511). The purpose is not a complete account of Jesus but a series of examples to inspire and confirm belief (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9539). Schaff discusses and discounts several purposes which have been assigned to John’s Gospel at various times, preferring John’s stated purpose. In light of that purpose, Schaff finds a clear plan of the Gospel. “It brings out the growing conflict between belief and unbelief, between light and darkness, and leads step by step to the great crisis of the cross . . . “ (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9577). Schaff speaks of the overall characteristics of John in glowing terms as “the most original, the most important, the most influential book in all literature” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9631). He gives a number of features distinguishing it from the Synoptics (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9641ff). The Christology is more mature in its expression. The works of Jesus show his deity and purpose very clearly. Schaff details various differences in style and language as well, both between John and the Synoptics and between the Gospel, Epistles, and Apocalypse. In general the grammar and vocabulary of the Gospel are limited but the use of repetition and parallelism is powerful (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9781). Questions as to authorship arose in the 19th century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9800). Schaff views that battle as ended with John as the author. He goes on to detail many pieces of external and internal evidence.

§84 “Critical Review of the Johannean Problem” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9968).

“The Johannean problem is the burning question of modern criticism on the soil of the New Testament. It arises from the difference between John and the Synoptists on the one hand, and the difference between the fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse on the other” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 9968). The difference in content between the Synoptic Gospels and John are significant. There are various ways of explaining the differences. Schaff details four, then four ways of dealing with the differences in style between the Gospel and Revelation. The doubts arose in the 19th century, with attacks largely by those who had decided to consider Scripture from a viewpoint of doubt (Schaff 2014, Loc. 10044). There is little consensus among the critics. This lack of agreement makes a consistent case difficult to articulate. Schaff concludes that we should accept the 4th gospel and Revelation as from the pen of the apostle John.

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New Testament Literature - Part 1

8/7/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
8/7/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 12, “The New Testament” Loc. 8053-12025.

Note, this chapter is very long, including a summary of each portion of the New Testament. For the purposes of making blog posts I will divide it into smaller segments.

§74 “Literature” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8054). Schaff cross-references sections 14 and 20, then provides an extensive bibliography.

§75 “Rise of the Apostolic Literature” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8077).

Schaff asserts Jesus as the living Word of God, the one we truly need, as opposed to a merely literary deity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8083). For this reason the gospel first spread based on preaching, not writing (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8089). The written documents emerged, mostly between the years 50 and 70, as Christianity spread (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8095). Schaff distinguishes between the Gospels, Acts, the 13 letters of Paul, 1 Peter and 1 John on the one hand, all recognized and accepted by the mid second century, and the antilegomena, recognized later (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8106). He observes that canonicity is more recognized than decided.

§76 “Character of the New Testament” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8117).

The New Testament is reliable and timeless, as a substitute for the authoritative oral teaching of the apostles. “It has a Greek body, a Hebrew soul, and a Christian spirit which rules both” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8129). Schaff observes the literary diversity and the usefulness of each genre.

§77 “Literature on the Gospels” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8152). Again, Schaff gives an extensive bibliography with light annotations.

§78 “The Four Gospels” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8238).

The gospels are not intended as comprehensive biographies but more as memoirs. The differences between the accounts are largely incidental. The same Jesus is seen in each account (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8267). Schaff appends notes about the legitimacy of the canonical gospels over against the gnostic gospels.

§79 “The Synoptists” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8411).

The fourth Gospel is clearly different from the first three. The three, the Synoptics, stand together with many similarities yet a great number of differences in small details (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8417).  Schaff reviews the overall structural and thematic similarity. He then reviews analyses made of words in common. The similarities and differences are often explained in different ways. Schaff considers it likely that the writings may be independent of one another (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8513), drawing on apostolic teaching and some now unknown written documents. He sees no compelling reason to debate the traditional order. In some appended notes, Schaff discusses various debates about inspiration, order, and dependence on different sources (Schaff 2014, Loc. 8619).

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Basic Christian Teachings - grace, faith,love, fidelity

7/31/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
7/31/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 11, “Theology of the Apostolic Church.” Loc. 7246-8052.

§66 “Literature” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 7246).
§67 “Unity of Apostolic Teaching” (Ibid., Loc. 7273).
Though the Christian life is primarily a life, it also has an important element of doctrine (Ibid., Loc. 7279), a human statement of the truth of God. Our doctrine is taken from the New Testament, through which we see the Old Testament more clearly (Ibid., Loc. 7305).

§68 “Different Types of Apostolic Teaching” (Ibid., Loc. 7331).
Schaff identifies several different shades of interpretation in apostolic doctrine, that which is primarily Jewish and Gentile, as well as temperamental differences in the authors (Ibid., Loc. 7346).

§69 “The Jewish Christian Theology - I. James and the Gospel of Law” (Ibid., Loc. 7362).
Some portions of the New Testament show Jesus as the fulfiller of the Law and the giver of a prophetic gospel. Schaff dispels the idea of a disagreement between Paul and James, observing they simply look at works from different directions (Ibid., Loc. 7404).

§70 “The Jewish Christian Theology - II. Peter and the Gospel of Hope” (Ibid., Loc. 7429).
Peter consistently looks forward to the hope found in Christ’s coming. This hope is based soundly on Jesus’ sacrifice for sin (Ibid., Loc. 7450).

§71 “The Gentile Christian Theology. Paul and the Gospel of Faith” (Ibid., Loc. 7465).
Paul’s theology consistently looks to the power of God’s grace to save by faith, regardless of works (Ibid., Loc. 7486). This salvation, needed by all, is found in Jesus (Ibid., Loc. 7501). Schaff discusses the Order of Salvation (Ibid., Loc. 7563ff). He observes that foreknowledge, foreordination, and all of election are simultaneous, though there are logical requirements of the order of events. In any construct, salvation is by God’s sovereign grace. This salvation in Christ was first made known to the Jews, then the Gentiles (Ibid., Loc. 7625). In the end, all believers will be saved and adopted in Christ (Ibid., Loc.7647).

Schaff then moves into several notes about different means of analyzing doctrine, providing a bibliography and various notes of Scriptures pertaining to events in salvation (Ibid., Loc. 7647ff).

§72 “John and the Gospel of Love” (Ibid., Loc. 7814).
As the last of the Gospel writers, John set the stage for future generations. His emphasis is on God’s love in Christ and the walk of the believer in love (Ibid., Loc. 7831). He is not as analytical as Paul, but “more ideal” (Ibid., Loc. 7835). John’s principal emphases are the doctrine of God (Ibid., Loc. 7852), Christ’s person (Ibid., Loc. 7863), Christ’s work to destroy sin (Ibid., Loc. 7894), and the work of the Holy Spirit (Ibid., Loc. 7919). The Christian life is one of forgiveness and grace (Ibid., Loc. 7940).

§73 “Heretical Perversions of the Apostolic Teaching” (Ibid., Loc. 7993).
Schaff identifies the basic heresies which the apostolic age faced. There were Judaizing tendencies (Ibid., Loc. 8003), Gnosticism (Ibid., Loc. 8014), and syncretism (Ibid., Loc. 8022). All denied the completed salvation through Jesus in one way or another.

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Early Christian Polity

7/24/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
7/24/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 10, “Organization of the Apostolic Church.” Loc. 6856-7245

§58 “Literature” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 6856).
Schaff dates the apostolic period as the time when Acts and the Epistles were being written, roughly in A.D. 60-70. He also considers the Didache and the letters of Clement and Ignatius to speak rather directly to this period. The period has received a great deal of commentary, evidenced by Schaff’s extensive bibliography.

§59 “The Christian Ministry, and its Relation to the Christian Community” (Ibid., Loc. 6920).
The visible church was established by Christ. It is present with leaders, locations, and the rites of baptism and communion. Jesus gave little other detail about the structure (Ibid., Loc. 6925). There is an office of the ministry which focuses on preaching, administering sacraments, and the power of the keys, from the very beginning. The organization of the visible church is intended to nurture Christians so they can serve in Christ’s kingdom for good (Ibid., Loc. 6953).

§60 “Apostles, Prophets, Evangelists” (Ibid., Loc. 6985).
The apostles, having too much to care for directly, assigned other offices, rooted in the apostolic office, beginning in Acts 5. The function of apostle, prophet, and evangelist was performed universally, rather than only in one congregation (Ibid., Loc. 6995). Generally these roles have disappeared, though Schaff thinks they may re-surface occasionally.

§61 “Presbyters or Bishops” (Ibid, Loc. 7020).
The presbyters, also called bishops, and the deacons, or helpers, were two roles in the local church. The bishops are normally a plurality in the local church. The bishops are normally a plurality in one congregation (Ibid., Loc. 7031). By the time of Ignatius, the bishop was the head of a congregation which had a council of presbyters (Ibid., Loc. 7036). Schaff discusses the change in structure in brief.

§62 “Deacons and Deaconesses” (Ibid., Loc. 7083).
The helpers of the Church first appear in Acts 6. “The presbyters were the custodians, the deacons the collectors and distributors, of the charitable funds” (Ibid., Loc. 7093).

§63 “Church Discipline” (Ibid., Loc. 7109).
Moral failure has always existed in the Church. Discipline is important, providing purification for the church and “a means of repentance and reform” for the offender (Ibid., Loc. 7125). Schaff describes various biblical situations of discipline. Normally it leads to restoration.

§64 “The Council at Jerusalem” (Ibid., Loc. 7141).
The council assembled in 50 included apostles, elders, and “brethren” (Ibid.). The local bishop presided. There was discussion and dissent, but a final resolution and announcement. Over time, laity and even lower ranking clergy have been removed from such councils (Ibid., Loc. 7157).

§65 “The Church and the Kingdom of Christ” (Ibid., Loc. 7198). In the apostolic period the Church had its own government, but was not a state. It was rather a manifestation of God’s kingdom within the existing culture. It is often depicted as a body (Ibid., Loc. 7214).

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Historical Roots of Christian Worship

7/17/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
7/17/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 9, “Worship in the Apostolic Age.” Loc. 6515-6855

§51 “The Synagogue” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 6520).

Christian worship emerged from the practices of the synagogue. “It was the local centre of the religious and social life of the Jews, as the temple of Jerusalem was the centre of their national life” (Ibid., Loc. 6531). Schaff considers synagogue practice to have begun about the time of Ezra and to have remained more or less consistent since then (Ibid., Loc. 6533). He provides a description of the architecture of a typical synagogue (Ibid., Loc. 6537), as well as the organization (Ibid., Loc. 6549) and the worship (Ibid., Loc. 6554).

§52 “Christian Worship” (Ibid., Loc. 6577).
Schaff observes that early Christian worship was based on the synagogue practices but with the focus on the completed work of Jesus.

§53 “The Several Parts of Worship”(Ibid., Loc. 6598).
Schaff details the elements present in worship meetings: preaching, reading from the Old and New Testament, prayer, singing especially of Psalms, a confession of faith, and the sacraments of baptism and communion. Schaff says of these gatherings, “There is no trace of a uniform and exclusive liturgy; it would be inconsistent with the vitality and liberty of the apostolic churches” (Ibid., oc. 6617). However, he concedes that the basic structure is informed by the Synagogue.

§54 “Baptism” (Ibid., Loc. 6645).
Trinitarian baptism, instituted by Christ, was practiced as a sign of church membership, a replacement of circumcision (Ibid., Loc. 6667). Schaff discusses the administration of baptism for forgiveness and cleansing as well as being a sign of prior conversion. Schaff observes that infant baptism, as circumcision, would be expected (Ibid., Loc. 6706).

§55 “The Lord’s Supper” (Ibid., Loc. 6727).
Schaff holds that the eucharist actively delivers grace to the believer (Ibid., Loc. 6745). In the earliest period he sees it as synonymous with the agape (Ibid., Loc. 6755). This became divisive and disappeared by the third century. Schaff weighs the three basic theories of the institution (Ibid., Loc. 6761), concluding that the explanations should not interfere with unity.

§56 “Sacred Places” (Ibid., Loc. 6772).
Very early there is evidence of Christians assembling together in places set aside for worship.

§57 “Sacred Times - The Lord’s Day” (Ibid., Loc. 6790).
The early Christians, especially of Jewish background, often held to prayer at the third, sixth, and ninth hours. The public worship quickly moved to Sunday, as the day of rest when possible, but especially as the day of resurrection (Ibid., Loc. 6813).
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Christianity Versus Judaism or Paganism

7/10/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
7/10/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 8, “Christian Life in the Apostolic Church.” Loc. 6178-6514


Schaff first reviews literature comparing and contrasting Christianity with rabbinic and pagan life.

§44 “The Power of Christianity” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 6191).
Schaff emphasizes the internal nature of the Christian life, centered on forgiveness. The inner renewal results in acts of love and justice toward others in ways that other religions do not (Ibid., Loc. 6197. Specifically, Schaff compares the apostolic churches to other religious groups of the same period, viewing the contrast as “startling” (Ibid., Loc. 6219). He goes on with some quotes from 19th century authors who would reject Christianity but who affirm it to have changed the world for the better.

§45 “The Spiritual Gifts” (Ibid., Loc. 6254).
The gifts of the Holy Spirit given in the apostolic age correspond to natural abilities but are given in a heightened manner by God (Ibid., Loc. 6254). Schaff views some as intellectual, some as emotional, and some as practical. He lists and discusses ten in all (Ibid., Loc. 6265).

46 “Christianity in Individuals” (Ibid., Loc. 6311).
The Christian life is primarily seen in individuals. Each believer is different in expressing the new life in Christ (Ibid., Loc. 6318). Schaff particularly notes that in Christianity women are accepted and valued.

§47 “Christianity and the Family” (Ibid., Loc. 6342).
The family takes on a new position in Christian thought. It is a microcosm of the Church. Marriage and family are seen as definitely good.

§48 “Christianity and Slavery” (Ibid., Loc. 6357).
Christianity has been instrumental in making slavery extinct. As opposed to the Greek and Roman view of slavery, Christians treated slaves with dignity, eventually releasing people from bondage (Ibid., Loc. 6386). Schaff provides useful notes about the prevalence of slavery in antiquity.

§49 “Christianity and Society” (Ibid., Loc. 6425).
Christian values have always tended to spread through society and government, though not always being overtly visible (Ibid., Loc. 6432).

§50 “Spiritual Condition of the Congregations” (Ibid., Loc. 6448).
Schaff observes that not all congregations have flourished at all times. There is always sin and failure. In the biblical letters to churches God always speaks to difficulties, correcting and strengthening the churches.

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John and the Johanine Writings

7/3/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
7/3/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 7, “St. John, and the Last Stadium of the Apostolic Period. The Consolidation of Jewish and Gentile Christianity.” Loc. 5823-6178

§40 “The Johanine Literature.” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 5824).

Schaff’s bibliography for this chapter  is quite extensive, including texts on dating, on the Gospel and Epistles, and on the Apocalypse.

§41 “Life and Character of John” (Ibid., Loc. 5932).

Peter and Paul were engaged in missionary work and evangelization. They finished their work before the sack of Jerusalem. John, on the other hand, is not known as a missionary or evangelist. His writing is more focused on the inward life than the visible spread of the Gospel (Ibid., Loc. 5944). He was likely considerably younger than Jesus and apparently lived until at least 98 (Ibid., Loc. 5955). His writing shows that he was gifted “for inward contemplation and insight into the mystery of Christ’s person and of eternal life in him” (Ibid., Loc. 5983). His emphasis on love and his epithet as “son of thunder” is evident in the epistles where he shows that Christians must love one another and condemn the devil (Ibid., Loc. 6017). Schaff also considers that this helps harmonize the authorship of the Gospel and the Apocalypse (Ibid., Loc. 6022).

Schaff appends notes about John’s character (Ibid., Loc. 6040) and his mission (Ibid., Loc. 6062) to proclaim the love of God.

§42 “Apostolic Labors of John” (Ibid., Loc. 6079).

John appears in Acts as one of the three pillars of Jewish Christianity. He always plays a subsidiary role to the others. By about 50 he no longer appears in Jerusalem (Ibid., Loc. 6091). but seems from other accounts to be in Ephesus. John is the primary Christian writer between 70 and 100 (Ibid., Loc. 614). He was banished to Patmos for a time (Ibid., Loc. 6120). Schaff thinks his banishment was during the reign of Nero, rather than Domitian (Ibid., Loc. 6143), with the Epistles being considerably later than his other writings.

§43 “Traditions Respecting John” (Ibid., Loc. 6148).

John’s later years are mentioned by Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Jerome, Augustine, Cassian, and Polycrates as a gentle individual of forceful convictions.

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Opposition Spreads Christianity

6/26/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
6/26/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 6, “The Great Tribulation (Matthew 24:21).” Loc. 5458-5822

§37 “The Roman Conflagration and the Neronian Persecution” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 5458).

The history of the Neronian reign in Rome is better known than many events which influenced Christians in the apostolic period. Schaff, as usual, gives a number of references. Referring to the martyrdoms of Paul and Peter, Schaff says, “It cemented the bond of union between the Jewish and Gentile converts...Rome became, for good and for evil, the Jerusalem of Christendom, and the Vatican hill the Golgotha of the West” (Ibid., Loc. 5468). Rome first turned from being the protector of law and order in the Church to frequently being the persecutor under Nero’s leadership (Ibid., Loc. 5479). Schaff describes Nero’s change from a good leader to bad, with the fire of Rome as a turning point in Nero’s overt actions (Ibid., Loc. 5491). After the fire, Nero attempted to shift suspicion to Christians (Ibid., Loc. 5508). Schaff observes that Tacitus and Suetonius knew the difference between Christians and Jews, reporting the actions against each group (Ibid., Loc. 5536). It is unclear how far the persecution spread (Ibid., Loc. 5546). Schaff discusses persecution accounts, as well as the uncertain dating of Hebrews and Revelation in regard to the reign of Nero. Schaff continues with notes and excerpts from various source documents (Ibid., Loc. 5575ff ).

§38 “The Jewish War and the Destruction of Jerusalem. AD 70” (Ibid.,Loc. 5638).

After the death of Nero a very dark period in Rome began (Ibid., Loc. 5661). In 63 there arose a prophet in Jerusalem predicting doom (Ibid., Loc. 5684). As time went on Roman oppression increased and the Jews in Palestine responded in kind (Ibid., Loc. 5201). In 67 the Roman army invaded Palestine, but the campaign was interrupted by turmoil in Rome. In 69-70 Titus besieged and took Jerusalem (Ibid., Loc. 5717). Many Christians have seen this as the Apocalypse, or at least a foreshadowing of it (Ibid., 5757). Drawing on contemporary accounts, Schaff describes an enormous casualty list of possibly a million, followed by a lavish triumph on the part of Titus. This overthrow of Jerusalem resulted in the loss of a Jewish homeland and the end of sacrifices in the temple (Ibid., Loc. 5786).

§39 “Effects of the Destruction of Jerusalem on the Christian Church” (Ibid., Loc. 5792).

Christians had fled Jerusalem to Pella in Decapolis prior to the siege. However, the Jewish Christians never regained the prominent role they had in Jerusalem.

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Christianity Spreads from Jerusalem to Rome

6/19/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
6/19/17
Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 5, “St. Paul and the conversion of the Gentiles.” Loc. 4319-5457

§29 “Sources and Literature on St. Paul and his Work” (Loc. 4325).

Schaff lists a variety of biblical and extrabiblical sources for Paul’s life, divided into more and less reliable sources, then various secondary histories.

§30 “Paul before his Conversion” (Loc. 4416).

“His youth as well as his closing years are involved in obscurity, save that he began a persecutor and ended a martyr, but the middle of his life is better known than that of any other apostle, and is replete with burning thoughts and noble deeds that can never die” (Loc. 4421). He was born a few years after Jesus in Tarsus, a respected cosmopolitan location. He was educated in Jerusalem by Gamaliel, grandson of the rabbi Hillel (Loc. 4426). “He had semitic fervor, Greek versatility, and Roman energy” (Loc. 4434). He shows himself familiar with the law and with Greek thought. He was a fanatical persecutor of Christians (Loc. 4477).

§31 “The Conversion of Paul” (Loc. 4504).

While on a mission to stop Christianity in damascus (Loc. 4518) Paul had a supernatural encounter in which Jesus appeared to him, striking him blind. He was met by a humle disciple in Damascus who baptized and healed him. Schaff notes several ways in which this experience left Paul not only trusting Jesus but also a very humble man.

Schaff comments that Paul was an apostle, not called to the Twelve, “but to the independet apostleship of the Gentiles” (Loc. 45989). Schaff then discusses various others in church history who had dramatic conversions. Various false explanations of Paul’s conversion are then detailed by Schaff (Loc. 4641ff).
§32 “The Work of Paul” (Loc. 4730).

Paul’s life, turned from himself to others, became that of a missionary, bringing Jesus to the synagogues and later to the Gentiles outside of Judaism (Loc. 4747). He often worked to earn his living apart from the Gospel (Loc. 4782). He visited many locations and faced many persecutions (Loc. 4791).

§33 “Paul’s Missionary Labors” (Loc. 4804).

Paul’s travels may be divided many ways. Schaff identifies “five or six periods.”
  1. AD 40-44 (Loc. 4809) Preparation in Syria and Cilicia
  2. AD 45-50 (Loc. 4827) First missionary journey, prior to conference in Jerusalem in AD 50.
  3. AD 51-54 (Loc. 4836) Second missionary journey - mostly to the Greek world.
  4. AD 54-58 (Loc. 4853) Third missionary tour - from Antioch to Ephesus and then Corinth.
  5. AD 58-63 (Loc. 4858) Two imprisonments and a journey to Rome.
  6. AD 63-64 (Loc. 4880) In Rome Paul preaches and teaches though under house arrest.
Paul died sometime between 64 and 69. The date is uncertain, as is the question of a possible release, trip to Spain, and re-arrest.

§34 “The Synod of Jerusalem, and the compromise between Jewish and Gentile Christianity” (Loc. 4965). Schaff reviews various sources pertaining to the Jerusalem council, particularly in regards to interpretive challenges of Acts 15 and Galatians 2. At issue was whether Gentile Christians must convert to Judaism as well as trusting Jesus (Loc. 4997). The conference in Jerusalem assembled (AD 50) to consider this question (Loc. 5049). The conclusion was that it was not necessary for Gentiles to become Jews in order to be Christians (Loc. 5105).

Schaff goes on to compare the account of Acts 15 and the account of Galatians 2 (Loc. 5159), also discussing the subsequent circumcision of Titus. The keeping of Jewish law, if it was done, was out of deference to weaker Jewish consciences.

§35 “The Conservative Reaction, and the Liberal Victory - Peter and Paul at Antioch” (Loc. 5198).

In Schaff’s opinion the Jerusalem decision was “an armistice rather than a final settlement” (Loc. 5198). The details still needed to be worked out. Some accepted full communion. Others guarded against too close a relation between Jewish and Gentile Christians. This sparked controversy wherever Paul went (Loc. 5281).

§36 “Christianity in Rome” (Loc. 5391).

After a brief bibliography, Schaff reminds the reader that Rome was the great cosmopolitan center of the time (Loc. 5320). There were a wide variety of languages, cultures, and economic and religious groups. There was a large population of Hellenistic Jews in Rome, possibly 20-30 thousand in the apostolic period (Loc. 5338). They lived in an enclave but many did well financially and socially (L. Schaff discusses theories of the origin of the Roman church (Loc. 5369 ff) but inconclusively. There was certainly a Christian presence by the year 52 (Loc. 5378). The work of Paul in Rome did not begin until 61 (Loc. 5396), with Peter likely arriving about two years later. The church may well have been evident in separate communities, at least at first. We know of consolidation under Clement, some years later (Loc. 5422). By the second century it was well established and unified.

​
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Important Steps - Before the Gospels

6/12/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
6/12/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 4, “St. Peter and the Conversion of the Jews.” Loc. 3470-4319

§24. “The Miracle of Pentecost and the Birthday of the Christian Church, A.D. 30” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 3470).
The Day of Pentecost is a critical point in the life of the Christian church, the start of its growth. Schaff lists multiple resources. Pentecost, says Schaff, “was the first act of the mediatorial reign of the exalted Redeemer in heaven, and the beginning of an unbroken series of manifestations in fulfillment of his promise to be with his people ‘alway even unto the end of the world’” (Ibid., Loc. 3490). This outpouring of the Holy Spirit was for believers, male and female, of different ages and backgrounds, assembled together (Ibid., Loc. 3540).

Schaff discusses various theories about the nature of the speaking in tongues, concluding that all views have challenges but that it was certainly a prophetic sign (Ibid., Loc. 35778). He then (Ibid., Loc. 3600ff) discusses various views on “speaking in tongues.” Though his analysis is fairly exhaustive Schaff does not firmly conclude that any particular view is accurate.

§25. “The Church of Jerusalem and the Labors of Peter” (Ibid., Loc. 3831).
After a bibliography Schaff observes that Peter was largely recognized as the leader of the new Church (Ibid., Loc. 3862). Persecution grew as Jewish leaders saw Christianity as a heretical sect (Ibid., Loc. 3891) by the year 37. The next round of persecution was in 44 under Herod Agrippa (Ibid., Loc. 3899). After this time Peter appears only occasionally in the New Testament. Some suppose he settled in Rome, while others see him as more itinerant. Schaff thinks it unlikely that he was in Rome before 63 (Ibid., Loc. 3917).

§26. “The Peter of History and the Peter of Fiction” (Ibid., Loc. 3937).
Schaff identifies three aspects of Peter’s character from the Gospels as a genuine human, from Acts as one with a divine mission, and in his Epistles as one in whom God’s grace has triumphed (Ibid., Loc. 3942).  Schaff details the Bible’s descriptions of Peter’s character. He then discusses mythologies which have grown up around Peter (Ibid., Loc. 3981ff). He is notably ambivalent about any suggestions that Peter was involved with the church at Rome in any significant way. Schaff makes a special note on the claims of the Papacy (Ibid., Loc. 4024) which he considers very unlikely. Certainly Schaff shows that if the Papacy was identical in the first century and several centuries later the data do not fit.

§27. “James the Brother of the Lord” (Ibid., Loc. 4068).
Schaff next discusses James as “the local head of the oldest church and the leader of the most conservative portion of Jewish Christianity” (Ibid., Loc. 4096). He rose to prominence in AD. 44 after the death of James the brother of John. Early histories note James as an early martyr, in the late sixties (Ibid., Loc. 4129). Schaff makes a point of distinction between the orthodox church at Jerusalem and the heretical Ebionites. The catholic Christians at Jerusalem had a long history until the time of Hadrian (Ibid., Loc. 4175). Schaff then discusses the many different people named James and the different theories about the relations of Jesus and his brothers.

§28. “Preparation for the Mission to the Gentiles” (Ibid., Loc. 4296).
Schaff observes that God prepared the way for Paul’s work by bringing the Gospel to Samaria by Philip (Ibid., Loc. 4301). The conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10) was also influential, as it broke down many cultural barriers (Ibid., Loc. 4308). The congregation formed in Antioch wa also instrumental in this process (Ibid., Loc. 4311).

​
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What do we actually know about the Apostolic period?

6/5/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
6/5/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 3, “The Apostolic Age.” Loc. 2859-3470

§20 “Sources and Literature of the Apostolic Age” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 2859).
The New Testament texts come to mind immediately as source documents for the Apostolic Age. Schaff refers to the debates which have occurred about various books of the New Testament but concludes that even without those of which there is debate the canonical Gospels and Acts give evidence of a trustworthy preservation of the apostolic time (Ibid., Loc. 2874). Schaff also notes that the post-apostolic and patristic writings seem dependent on a view of the accuracy of Acts and Paul’s letters. The apocryphal and heretical works, which Schaff cites in a bibliography (Ibid., Loc. 2892), Jewish, and Pagan sources, though often hostile to Christian orthodoxy, accept the New Testament view of people, places, and many ideas. Schaff provides a list of histories as well (Ibid., Loc. 2910).

§21. “General Character of the Apostolic Age” (Ibid., Loc. 2996). This period covers approximately AD 30-100 with centers of activity in Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome, with Ephesus and Corinth becoming important later in the period (Ibid., Loc. 3003). The Gospel reached throughout the Mediterranean world in this period. Again, Acts and the Pauline Epistles are the primary source until 63. Little is known after that time until the second century (Ibid., Loc. 3026). Christianity grew rapidly, possibly reaching some 12 million by the time of Constantine (Ibid., Loc. 3043). Schaff sees Peter, Paul, and John as the representatives of this age, being paradigms for all growth of Christianity (Ibid., Loc. 3073). He goes on to sketch the three individually.

§22. “The Critical Reconstruction of the History of the Apostolic Age” (Ibid., Loc. 3155). In Schaff’s time studies of the apostolic age were blossoming, though often in such a way as to discredit the early accounts (Ibid., Loc. 3169). Schaff discusses both verbal criticism and historical criticism which had been developed in the early 1800s. One branch was more disposed to accept the reliability of Scripture than the other. Schaff illustrates some of the distinctives of the more skeptical Tubingen school.

§23. “Chronology of the Apostolic Age” (Ibid., Loc. 3389).
Much of the chronology is well document in Acts, the Pauline Epistles, Josephus, and other Roman historians. Schaff gives some highlights of the period with dates.

​
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Jesus as the Center of Church History

5/29/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
5/29/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 2, Jesus Christ” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1479-2858).

§14. “Sources and Literature” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1479).Jesus’ life is recorded by multiple authors. Schaff discounts some apocryphal records but affirms the canonical Gospels which, he says, “exhibit essentially the same divine-human life and character of Christ, which stand out in sharp contrast with the fictitious Christ of the Apocryphal Gospels” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1484). The Acts, the Apostolic Epistles, and John’s Apocalypse confirm the same view of Jesus (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1488). Schaff goes on to list numerous apocryphal Gospels which seem almost intended to mock the earlier accounts. Schaff also observes that Jewish writings, including Josephus, provide a picture of life very similar to that of the New Testament (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1517). He goes on to discuss the authenticity of the Josephus account of Jesus. Additionally, Schaff cites secular Roman testimonies (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1570). As usual, Schaff provides a wealth of bibliographic references. Schaff moves on to some theological discussion of Jesus as the culmination of God’s revelation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1689), discussing his birth, life, ministry, death, and resurrection in almost sermonic style.

§16. “Chronology of the Life of Christ” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1855). Schaff places Jesus’ birth on December 25, probably as early as B.C. 4 (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1858). He discusses at length the political history around Herod as well as astronomical data which could date the work of the Magi. The account of Luke 3 and the dating of entry into ministry is also consistent with this view of birth (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1960). This places the completion of the temple in Jerusalem as a current event when Jesus discusses its completion. The birth in December also bears discussion (Schaff 2014, Loc. 2033). Schaff here seems undecided counter to his earlier statements. As to the duration of Jesus, ministry Schaff considers it at least two years and probably not four in duration (Schaff 2014, Loc. 2084). The death of Christ was on Friday, either the 14th or 15th of Nisan. While the Synoptics point to the 15th, John may point to the 14th (Schaff 2014, Loc. 2098). This leads to the year 30 or 33.

§17. “The Land and the People” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 2115). Schaff considers the New Testament account to be borne out by historical considerations. The places and people are consistent with what we now know of the time and culture. Schaff writes a brief guide to the places and life in New Testament Palestine. Schaff then moves to discuss the schools of Hebraic thought under the rabbis Hillel and Shammai (Schaff 2014, Loc. 2317).

§18. “Apocryphal Traditions” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 2476). Schaff surveys the legendary acts and sayings of Jesus from outside the canonical Gospels. He continues to give many bibliographic references.

§19. “The Resurrection of Christ” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 2679). The Resurrection is a central tenet of Christianity. Without his death and resurrection we do not have the Christian faith. Schaff discusses contrary views and concludes that a real resurrection is the only valid option.

​
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A Context for the Start of Christian History

5/22/2017

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Mondays are for Church History
5/22/17

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Ch. 1, “Preparation for Christianity in the History of the Jewish and Heathen World” Loc. 979-1478.

§8. “Central Position of Christ in the History of the World” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 997).

Schaff sees the coming of Christ as the pivotal time in world history, prepared from creation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1009).There are recollections of creation, fall, and redemptive hopes “even in the heathen religions” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1012). In Christianity we find reconciliation of man to God and God to man, what the world has awaited (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1020).

§9. “Judaism” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1034). Schaff provides an extensive bibliography of literature about Judaism. He identifies them in brief as God’s chosen people from whom salvation comes (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1097). He then draws a brief history of Israel as the people from whom Christ comes. He then makes comparisons of the groups within Judaism, Islam, and Greek philosophy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1136).

§10. “The Law, and the Prophecy” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1158). Jesus and the apostles held the Old Testament in high regard, viewing it as divine revelation, pointing to Jesus.

§11. “Heathenism” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1220). After a bibliography Schaff introduces heathenism as religion created by the imagination of fallen humans (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1255). He observes the tendency of the gods to be very like humans with all their faults. There is not definitive hope of redemption, which led to a quick reception of Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1287).

§12. “Grecian Literature, and the Roman Empire” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1309). Greek philosophy and Roman governance gave people the tools to express the Gospel and bring order in the Church.

§13. “Judaism and Heathenism in Co” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 1423). Jews had colonized much of the Greek and Roman world by the first century. They were well known, though not well liked, by the pagans.

​
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Back to the start - Church History by Schaff

5/15/2017

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Mondays are for Church History.
5/15/17
Philip Schaff’s History of the Christian Church is normally considered one of the definitive Church history texts. One of the features which makes it very interesting is that during Schaff’s career there were many developments in biblical and historical scholarship. His extensive bibliographies survey many of the major works of his time. The revisions to his work, conducted throughout the second half of the 19th century, likewise trace the development of scholarly opinion.

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 1, Apostolic Christianity A.D. 1-100, Loc. 125-12,025.

Preface to the Revised Edition (1882).
Schaff took up the revision of his church history some thirty years after the original publication. In the revision process the first volume grew into two.

Preface to the First Edition (1858).
The Ante Nicene period “presents a state of primitive simplicity and purity unsullied by contact with the secular power, but with this also, the fundamental forms of heresy and corruption, which reappear from time to time under new names and aspects, but which must serve, in the overruling providence of God, to promote the cause of truth and righteousness” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 160). Schaff’s attempt is to keep the work of Christ in his people prominent in his study of Church history (Schaff 2014, Loc. 173).

Preface to the Third Revision (1890).
Schaff has been involved in numerous revisions of his work, trying to keep up with the growth of scholarship. This is his last full revision (Schaff 2014, Loc. 191).

A General Introduction begins with a bibliography (Schaff 2014, Loc. 195).

§1. Nature of Church History (Schaff 2014, Loc. 217).

We can look at history as a divine revelation of God’s work in time or as a human biography. Schaff cautions against overlooking the divine as we study history. “Secular history, far from controlling sacred history, is controlled by it, must directly or indirectly subserve its ends, and can only be fully understood in the central light of Christian truth and the plan of salvation” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 235). Schaff divides church history into both the objective view, in which we identify the facts of the person of Jesus, and the subjective, in which we try to describe the progress of God’s kingdom in the inward life (Schaff 2014, Loc. 254).

§2. Branches of Church History (Schaff 2014, Loc. 275).

Church history has several branches. Missions (Schaff 2014, Loc. 285) reviews the spread of Christianity. Studies of persecution are common (Schaff 2014, Loc. 298). Church history and government are a common study (Schaff 2014, Loc. 325). So also is history of worship or liturgy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 327). Some have studied Christian life, or morality (Schaff 2014, Loc. 334). Another branch is history of theology, which can be divided into the various theological categories (Schaff 2014, Loc. 336).

§3 Sources of Church History (Schaff 2014, Loc. 351).

Schaff observes that we have both written and unwritten sources of church history with the unwritten ones mostly being works of art (Schaff 2014, Loc. 320).

§4. Periods of Church History (Schaff 2014, Loc. 380). While a strict year-by-year study has been tried, it does not always work. Breaking study into large divisions and finding natural boundaries of various movements is more productive (Schaff 2014, Loc. 388). In general there is agreement on a division of ancient, medieval, and modern periods (Schaff 2014, Loc. 395). Schaff gives some basic parameters of each.

§5. Uses of Church History (Schaff 2014, Loc. 475).

Theology has to draw upon church history. It is what supplies all the other disciplines with the source material they need. It also provides illustrations of God’s work to different ages (Schaff 2014, Loc. 490).

§6. Duty of the Historian (Schaff 2014, Loc. 497).

The historian is a witness, telling the truth, mastering sources, selecting and examining them responsibly, and composing an account of living things from a deeply Christian point of view.

§7. Literature of Church History (Schaff 2014, Loc. 570).

Schaff provides additional bibliography and discusses the changes in outlook in different generations of writing. As he reaches more modern authors he gives more detailed summaries of style and content.

​
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