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A Wrap-Up of Augustine

12/23/2025

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Church History
12/23/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§179. The Works of Augustine." (pp. 2680-2691).
    Schaff considers Augustine's writing to be lively and, at times, playful (Schaff 2014, p. 2680). His writing, which is very extensive, is sufficiently varied that it can be worthy of many kinds of praise and of blame. Schaff does note that we have none of Augustine's pre-Christian works, so can only speculate about them. In this section, Schaff reviews the most important works of Augustine in various categories.
    Augustine's Confessions and Retractions make up his autobiographical works (Schaff 2014, p. 2681). These discuss his life and his writings, respectively. His Confessions particularly stand out among autobiographies through history, especially due to the humility, depth, and breadth of interest of the universal themes found. During the later years of his life, Aubustine reviewed his prior writings, then published a series of Retractions making corrections where they were needed (Schaff 2014, p. 2682). A third significant autobiographical work would be a collection of his letters, 270 in all, from 386-429 (Schaff 2014, p. 2683). These touch on all sorts of important issues of the time.
    Early in his life, Aguustine wrote a number of philosophical treatises (Schaff 2014, p. 2683). Many of these came from experience and discussions as Augustine was receiving instructions prior to his baptism (Schaff 2014, p. 2683). Topics such as the nature and certainty of truth, the relation of good and evil, and the origin of the soul are typical in these philosophical works. Schaff considers these works to be not directly Christian but to "show a Platonism seized and consecrated by the spirit of Christianity, full of high thoughts, ideal views, and discriminating argument" (Schaff 2014, p. 2684). These works are the subjects of many of Augustine's Retractions. Augustine's practice of refutation of pagan philosophers left us with a wealth of knowledge about the disputes of his time (Schaff 2014, p. 2685). 
    A third category of Augustine's works is those "apologetic works against Pagans and Jews" (Schaff 2014, p. 2685). Particularly his De Civitate Dei is worthy of close reading.
    Augustine wrote a number of theological works which were more general in nature (Schaff 2014, p. 2685). These include works on the usefulness of knowledge, a work on faith and symbols, works of systematic Christian doctrine and catechetical works (Schaff 2014, p. 2686).
    We have a number of specifically polemic theological works, particularly detailing the failure of heretical and schismatic groups to find truth (Schaff 2014, p. 2686). Schaff considers Augustine's work in this realm to be fair and dispassionate. Schaff lists these works in some detail.
    Schaff describes a number of Augustine's exegetical works. In particular, his exposition on Genesis 1-3 in twelve books; his comments and sermons on the Psalms, and 124 homilies on John's Gospel stand out (Schaff 2014, p. 2690). These works are not oriented to grammatical and historical exposition. Rather, they depend on edifying ideas and the author's Scriptural background.
    In the category of Ethical or Practical works Schaff mentions many sermons based on Scripture passages, festivals, or martyrs (Schaff 2014, p. 2690). There are also numerous which are prepared following a variety of topics and occasions.

"§180. The Influence of Augustine upon Posterity and his Relation to Catholicism and Protestantism." (pp. 2691-2701).
    Schaff considers Aguustine's influence on both Catholicism and Protestantism to be immense (Schaff 2014, p. 2691). He is claimed as a luminary in both camps. His explorations of doctrine and his stance as a vigorous orthodox Christian cannot be ignored. Schaff engages in a lengthy encomium on Augustine.
    The volume concludes with a list of popes and emperors from 314-590, then a corrigenda segment. Sadly, in the Kindle version of the book, page number references are cumulative, while the references to corrigenda and addenda assume pagination which is not cumulative.

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More about Jerome, then Augustine of Hippo

12/16/2025

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Church History
12/16/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§177. The Works of Jerome." (pp. 2656-2668).
    Schaff describes the literary works of Jerome in some detail, noting that editions of those works fill numerous volumes (Schaff 2014, p. 2656). The foremost of his works, which Schaff classifies as an exegetical work, is his translation of the Bible into Latin, the Vulgate. This was begun about 382-385, at a time when Latin was becoming solidified as the language of Christianity (Schaff 2014, p. 2657). Though there was already a Latin translation, it was marred by various emendations and the work of correctors. The Vulgate was completed in 405. The Vulgate was "directly or indirectly the mother of most of the earlier versions in the European vernaculars" (Schaff 2014, p. 2658).
    Jerome further wrote commentaries "on Genesis, the Major and Minor Prophets, Ecclesiastes, Job, some of the Psalms, the Gospel of Matthew, and the Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians, Titus, and Philemon" (Schaff 2014, p. 2658). He also translated many of Origen's homilies into Latin. The commentaries, in Schaff's opinion, are not always well thought out and are inconsistent in quality (Schaff 2014, p. 2659). However, Schaff sees Jerome moving in a grammatico-historical interpretive direction, in contrast to earlier commentators who relied on allegory (Schaff 2014, p. 2660). Yet Jerome does tend to provide an allegorical application to his readings of passages.
    Jerome's historical works are of value for their descriptions of people and practices from early Christianity (Schaff 2014, p. 2662). He extended Eusebius' chronological history up to his own time, including history of doctrinal disputes. Jerome further wrote a collection of brief biographical sketches of important Christians from the time of the apostles to his own time (Schaff 2014, p. 2663). Additionally, there are more extensive biographies of celebrated hermits and other hagiographies.
    Schaff observes that Jerome's polemic works regarding doctrine and ethics relate not only to the Pelagian controversy, but also to those surrounding Arius and Origen (Schaff 2014, p. 2663). Schaff considers these often to do Jerome little credit, particularly when they engage in personal attacks against opponents who have already died (Schaff 2014, p. 2664). His moralistic views seem bound to asceticism for asceticism's sake (Schaff 2014, p. 2665). He was particularly hostile toward marriage, as Schaff demonstrates with numerous quotations. Schaff finally discusses Jerome's epistles, which he considers "not inferior to the letters of Cicero" (Schaff 2014, p. 2666). The correspondents included many influential persons. The letters deal with philosophy and the practical implications of religion.

"§178. Augustine." (pp. 2668-2680).
    Augustine's writings have been preserved, in whole or in part, in many editions, noted in Schaff's extensive but not exhaustive bibliography (Schaff 2014, pp. 2668-2670). Schaff considers Augustine's Confessions, written when he was 46 years of age, to be exemplary among works of autobiography, describing his life before God and avoiding vanity (Schaff 2014, p. 2670).
    Augustine was born November 13, 354 in the "unimportant" village of Tagaste, in Numidia (Schaff 2014, p. 2670). His father, a pagan, and his mother, a Christian, set him on a journey of education and inquiry which eventually led him to be one of the foremost luminaries of all Christian history. Augustine's conversion dates to September of 386 (Schaff 2014, p. 2672).
    In 391, against his will, Augustine was chosen as presbyter in Hippo Regius in Numidia (Schaff 2014, p. 2673). He was subsequently elected bishop in 395, then served in Hippo for 38 years, the rest of his life.
    Schaff describes Augustine's life as mildly ascetic. He lived in a communal house with his clergy, and developed a seminary in that house. By his actions, "he became unwittingly the founder of the Augustinian order, which gave the reformer Luther to the world" (Schaff 2014, p. 2673). Augustine was busy with administration, yet preached frequently, often twice daily, all the while considering the life of contemplation of great importance (Schaff 2014, p. 2674).
    Augustine's intellectual approach to theology and questions of ecclesiology set him apart in his time, causing him to be widely recognized as the pre-eminent churchly luminary (Schaff 2014, p. 2674).
    At the age of 72, Augustine began stepping back from some of the rigors of his office. His old age saw him troubled not only by illness but also by the invasion of Vandals, who ultimately besieged Hippo (Schaff 2014, p. 2675).
    Schaff engages in a lengthy and eloquent eulogy of Augustine's genius, particularly as regards his ability to reflect the intimate relationship of trust and intellect, in which trust must come before understanding (Schaff 2014, pp 2675 ff).

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Ambrose of Milan and Jerome of Jerusalem

12/9/2025

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Church History
12/9/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§175. Ambrose." (pp. 2645-2652).
    Schaff introduces Ambrose as the son of the governor of Gaul, born about 340 (Schaff 2014, p. 2646). He was a man of considerable education, and served initially as praetor in Upper Italy before being urged to take up the episcopacy in Milan (Schaff 2014, p. 2647). Milan had been in the hands of an Arian bishop, so the shift to Ambrose as bishop was not comfortable. Further, Ambrose was still a catechumen and had not yet been baptized. Within 8 days of the call, he had completed his catechesis, been baptized, and took up the episcopacy in Milan in 374.
    Schaff (and others) give glowing accounts of Ambrose as bishop. He was apparently a gifted preacher and administrator (Schaff 2014, p. 2647). He himself took on a strict asceticism, as well as voluntary poverty.
    Ambrose proved to be vigorous in his opposition to Arian errors (Schaff 2014, p. 2648). He further strove to separate the church from state politics. Schaff observes, "It was his maxim, that the emperor is in the church, but not over the church, and therefore has no right to the church buildings" (Schaff 2014, p. 2648). Consistent with this point of view, Ambrose chose not to involve himself with the affairs of the state. Ambrose famously refused the emperor Theodosius communion due to a matter of unrepented sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2649). The emperor was moved to repentance, confession, restitution, and absolution. The relationship between Theodosius and Ambrose grew stronger from that point to the time of Theodosius' death (Schaff 2014, p. 2650). Ambrose died on Good Friday, April 4, 397, aged 57 (Schaff 2014, p. 2650).
    Schaff considers Ambrose to be of such a stature in his theology and writing to be excelled only by Augustine and Jerome, and to have been unparalleled as an administrator (Schaff 2014, p. 2651). He practiced an allegorical method of exegesis, which shows in many of his most important works, discussed in brief by Schaff. Much of Ambrose's theology and exegesis is modeled on Basil the Great.

"§176. Jerome as a Divine and Scholar." (pp. 2652-2656).
    Because Schaff had previously discussed the life of Jerome, he here comments only on his theological and literary works. Jerome spent his life in study, teaching, and writing (Schaff 2014, p. 2652). He was an avid collector of books, at great personal expense. Schaff notes that Jerome "possessed a remarkable memory, a keen understanding, quick and sound judgment, an ardent temperament, a lively imagination, sparkling wit, and brilliant power of expression" (Schaff 2014, p. 2653). Jerome's Latin Vulgate arguably did more to solidify the Latin language as used among Christians than did all the works of other Latin Fathers. He had exhaustive knowledge of secular and sacred literature alike.
    At times Schaff considers Jerome to have been somewhat arrogant about his scholastic ability (Schaff 2014, p. 2655). He was, however, genuinely a scholar of outstanding ability. Schaff discusses Jerome's character flaws, inconsistencies, and care for his own reputation frankly as serious problems. He was impulsive and inconsiderate in his work, and was incurably vain and ambitious.

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Two Early Latin Church Fathers

12/2/2025

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Church History
12/2/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§173. Lactantius." (pp. 2640-2643).
    Having discussed the prominent Greek Fathers, Schaff turns to the Latin Fathers, beginning with Lactantius, who in theology belongs more to the ante-Nicene period than the Nicene (Schaff 2014, p. 2641). His origin is a matter of some debate, prior to his apparent conversion around the time of the Diocletian persecution. Lactantius was chosen by Constantine to educate his son, Crispus, prior to Crispus' execution in 326. Lactantius likely died in the imperial household about 330.
    Lactantius was a notable author, showing broad learning and a refined style, resulting in his being referred to as a Christian Cicero (Schaff 2014, p. 2642). His works, in Jerome's estimation, were more apt for refuting error than in positive articulation of truth. However, his Institutes are commonly read and appreciated. Schaff notes that from a doctrinal standpoint Lactantius bordered on Manichaeism, that he was a subordinationist, and that he found Christ to have two nativities: one at creation and another at incarnation.
    Schaff briefly reviews the extant works of Lactantius (Schaff 2014, p. 2643).

"§174. Hilary of Poitiers." (pp. 2643-2645).
    Hilary, born in Poitiers, where he later served as bishop, has been compared to Athanasius due to his forceful stand against Arianism (Schaff 2014, p. 2644). Born in the third century, Hilary became a Christian in adulthood, along with his wife and daughter. He became bishop of Poitiers in 350. His stand against Arianism resulted in a banishment to Asia Minor from 356-361. He was recalled, then banished, living in retirement until dying in 368.
    Schaff reviews a number of Hilary's written works in brief (Schaff 2014, pp. 2644-2645).

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Alexandria and Syria

11/25/2025

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Church History
11/25/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§171. Cyril of Alexandria." (pp. 2629-2635).
    After a brief bibliography, Schaff introduces us in an unfavorable way to Cyril of Alexandria, describing him as "a man making theology and orthodoxy the instruments of his passions" (Schaff 2014, p. 2630). After ascending to the position of patriarch in Alexandria in 412, he began consolidating power to himself using armed force (Schaff 2014, p. 2631). When the governor took exception to Cyril's practices, he gathered a guard of armed monks who would insult the governor publicly.
    Cyril became involved in Christological disputes from 428 until his death in 444 (Schaff 2014, p. 2631). He used all tools available to fight against Nestorianism, including misrepresentation, artifice, violence, and bribery (Schaff 2014, p. 2632). Schaff notes, "Cyril furnishes a striking proof that orthodoxy and piety are two quite different things, and that zeal for pure doctrine may coexist with an unchristian spirit" (Schaff 2014, p. 2632). He was a keen minded theologian and apologist (Schaff 2014, p. 2633). Cyril showed great zeal in his battle for the incarnation and for the honor of Mary. Schaff lists his extant writings in brief, mostly consisting of commentary sermons (Schaff 2014, p. 2635).

"§172. Ephraem the Syrian." (pp. 2636-2640).
    Schaff treats Ephraem (also spelled Ephraim) the Syrian as the last of his gathering of Eastern fathers. He was born in Mesopotamia in the early fourth century to pagan parents, then was forced to leave home due to his care for Christianity (Schaff 2014, p. 2637). He was taken in, instructed, and likely baptized by Jacob of Nisibis, who kept him as a teacher after 325. After 363, Ephraem became a hermit near Edessa. He traveled to Egypt and also visited Basil the Great in Caesarea (Schaff 2014, p. 2638). He died in 379.
    Ephraem was known especially for his teaching and his written works (Schaff 2014, p. 2638), in Syriac but translated at an early date into Greek. Though we have only commentaries on about half of the Old Testament and on the Pauline Epistles, Ephraem is known to have written commentaries on the entire Bible (Schaff 2014, p. 2639). His sermons are vividly written. We also know him to have written hymns (Schaff 2014, p. 2640). 

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A Heresy Hunter and an Exegete

11/18/2025

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Church History
11/18/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§169. Epiphanius." (pp. 2614-2620).
    Schaff dates Epiphanius as living from between 310 and 320 to 403 (Schaff 2014, p. 2615).  He was born in Palestine, becoming a Christian about the age of 16. In 367 he was elected bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus (Schaff 2014, p. 2616). While in Cyprus he engaged in doctrinal controversies as a zealous defender of orthodoxy. Particularly, he opposed the teachings of Origen. Schaff considers his zealous stands not always to be adequately informed. However, his relentless hunt for heresy has inspired many others.
    Though Epiphanius had a familiarity with five languages, he was not considered a master of them, nor was he broadly educated (Schaff 2014, p. 2617). However, his writings provide information about heresies as well as about patristic polemical practices. Schaff reviews his extant writings in brief. He identifies Epiphanius as a compiler of information more than someone who engaged in structured discursive arguments (Schaff 2014, p. 2618). His catalog of heresies is particularly valuable in this regard.

"§170. John Chrysostom." (pp. 2620-2629).
    Since the seventh century, this John has been called Chrysostom, "the Golden-Mouthed" (Schaff 2014, p. 2621). He is highly regarded as an expositor and preacher. Born in 347 in Antioch, he was well trained, first by his mother, then by Libanius, who considered John his top scholar (Schaff 2014, p. 2622). John received three years of instruction in theology at Antioch, then considered adopting a monastic life (Schaff 2014, p. 2622). He was dissuaded in this by his mother until her death. John then spent six years in study and solitude in the mountains near Antioch, enjoying the fellowship of men such as Diodorus and Theodore of Mopsuestia.
    John's ascetic life created health problems, which brought him back to Antioch about 380, where he was made a deacon, then a presbyter (Schaff 2014, p. 2623). During this time in Antioch he was active in writing homilies, commentaries, and other works. In 397 John was made patriarch of Constantinople. During this time, he made some overtures toward Origenist thought, which resulted in his banishment until his death in 407 (Schaff 2014, p. 2624). John used "simple, sober, grammatico-historical interpretation, in opposition to the arbitrary allegorizing of the Alexandrians" (Schaff 2014, p. 2624). His emphasis generally was on practical matters of piety (Schaff 2014, p. 2625). He was also noteworthy for his care for the poor and his life of simplicity. Schaff briefly reviews Chrysostom's known writings. 

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Alexandria and Jerusalem

11/11/2025

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Church History
11/11/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§167. Didymus of Alexandria." (pp. 2610-2611).
    Didymus of Alexandria, dubbed "Caecus" due to his blindness from the age of four, cultivated his knowledge in Scripture, philosophy, rhetoric, and mathematics alike (Schaff 2014, p. 2611). Nominated to teach by Athanasius, he worked in this role in Alexandria for close to 60 years, having many students who were themselves illustrious scholars. Though Didymus took strong stands against Arian beliefs, his acceptance of Origen's views about the pre-existent nature of human souls earned him condemnation after his death by several councils. Schaff lists a number of his extant works, mostly exegetical in nature.

"§168. Cyril of Jerusalem." (pp. 2612-2614).
    Cyril, who became presbyter in Jerusalem in 350, was involved in the Arian controversy for much of his life. "His metropolitan, Acacius of Caesarea, an Arian, who had elevated him to the episcopal chair, fell out with him over the Nicene faith and on a question of jurisdiction, and deposed him at a council in 357" (Schaff 2014, p. 2612). He was restored to office in 361, then Acacius converted to Nicene views in 363 (Schaff 2014, p. 2613). After being restored from an exile in 379, Cyril continued working with the church in Jerusalem until his death in 386. His catechetical lectures from about 347 are well known. They provide significant insight into the preparation converts of his time would have prior to baptism (Schaff 2014, p. 2614).

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Gregory and Gregory

11/4/2025

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Church History
11/4/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§165. Gregory of Nyssa." (pp. 2592-2597).
    Gregory of Nyssa, brother of Basil the Great, considered earthly wealth and lineage to be unimportant (Schaff 2014, p. 2593). He became an ascetic in Pontus after a brief time as a rhetorician. Although he was married, he endorsed a life of celibacy as a means of freedom from worldly distractions (Schaff 2014, p. 2594). He viewed the spiritual dedication to God as a true sort of virginity, developing a life of freedom.
    In 372, Basil urged Gregory to move to Cappadocia and engage in active interactions to combat Arian beliefs (Schaff 2014, p. 2594). This resulted in a two year exile beginning in 376. After his return from exile he endured the death of all his brothers and sisters, who served as examples to him of the godly life (Schaff 2014, p. 2595). Schaff provides a substantial prayer written by Gregory after the death of his sister, indicating the depth of his repentance and dedication to God.
    Gregory of Nyssa was present at the council of Constantinople. There arose a tradition, which Schaff considers erroneous, that he composed the addition to the Nicene Creed adopted at Constantinople (Schaff 2014, p. 2595). Because of his prominence as a theologian he was sent to tour numerous Christian communities to evaluate and strengthen their faith (Schaff 2014, p. 2596). He died around 395. Schaff lists many of his known works. They show a strong influence of Origen, and stress human freedom (Schaff 2014, p. 2597). 

"§166. Gregory Nazianzen." (pp. 2597-2610).
    Gregory Nazianzen is also referred to as Gregory the Theologian. He is a contemporary in both time and place with Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa (Schaff 2014, p. 2598). Gregory defended Nicene orthodoxy while embracing the arts, poetry, and contemplation.
    Gregory was born about 330, making him a year younger than the emperor Julian (Schaff 2014, p. 2599). His Christian mother was a strong formative influence on him. In Schaff's analysis, she was a woman of broad interests and abilities, able to concentrate her attention in a singular manner (Schaff 2014, p. 2600).
    Trained in the Scripture and in science, Gregory then moved into a study of rhetoric (Schaff 2014, p. 2600). As a teacher in the church he followed and endorsed the custom of his time, living a celibate life (Schaff 2014, p. 2601). He received training in Cappadocian Caesarea, then in Caesarea in Palestine, followed by studies in Alexandria and Athens. It was in Athens that Gregory became a close friend of Basil. His relationship with his fellow student, Julian (the apostate) was quite the opposite, resulting in ongoing antagonism (Schaff 2014, p. 2602).
    After studies in Athens, Gregory returned to his parents' home with his brother, a physician (Schaff 2014, p. 2602). After receiving baptism he entered a strict form of asceticism. Schaff illustrates Gregory's progressive move into the life of contemplation in this period. In 361, against his will, Gregory was ordained as a presbyter (Schaff 2014, p. 2603). He began service as a presbyter in Nazianzum in 362. Basil subsequently ordained Gregory as a bishop, with responsibility to care for the small town of Sasima. There is some doubt as to whether Gregory actually took up that office, as he is known to have been assisting his father in 372 (Schaff 2014, p. 2604).
    After the death of Gregory's father in 374, he entered a life of solitude in 375 (Schaff 2014, p. 2605). The death of Basil in 379 pushed Gregory into a period of depression. At this time, he was called to the orthodox church in Constantinople, which city had succumbed to Arian thought (Schaff 2014, p. 2606). Through his labors, Nicene orthodoxy came to prominence in Constantinople. Gregory's trinitarian discourses from this time period were well known and received. Schaff considers the edict of Theodosius in 380, deposing Arians, to have been inspired by the work of Gregory, whom he placed over the cathedral church of Constantinople (Schaff 2014, p. 2607). Gregory was placed as bishop of Constantinople in 381. He subsequently resigned due to the political intrigue caused by his elevation (Schaff 2014, p. 2608). Gregory remained active in writing and engaged in human care ministries through the remainder of his life (Schaff 2014, p. 2609). He died in 390 or 391.

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Athanasius and Basil

10/28/2025

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Church History
10/28/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§163. Athanasius the Great." (pp. 2574-2583).
    After an extensive bibliography which includes information about works of Athanasius discovered and published in the 19th century, Schaff asserts that Athanasius should be seen as great in theological and churchly matters similarly to Constantine in political and secular issues (Schaff 2014, p. 2575). Athanasius proved his convictions through many years of standing in the face of opposition. Despite hostility on all sides he was willing to stand for the truth (Schaff 2014, p. 2576). He had been brought into training in 313 by the bishop Alexander of Alexandria, whom he served for many years, accompanying him to the Nicene Council. He became the successor to Alexander in 328 despite his youth.
    Immediately upon his elevation as bishop, Athanasius became intimately involved with the Arian controversy (Schaff 2014, p. 2577). He was exiled five times due to his stance in favor of Nicene orthodoxy. After his fifth exile ended in 369, Athanasius was able to live and write in peace until his death in 373 (Schaff 2014, p. 2678).
    Schaff describes Athanasius as having tremendous acumen and insight, attributed by supporters to divine assistance and by detractors to the devil (Schaff 2014, p. 2578). All accounts suggest he endured good and bad circumstances equally well. Because of his view that Arian belief was completely contrary to Christianity, Athanasius was inflexible in his opposition to the Arians (Schaff 2014, p. 2579). He spoke and wrote against them in forceful terms but never endorsed violence or persecution against the Arians.
    Athanasius' writings, in Schaff's estimation, showed theological depth and rhetorical excellence, as well as the marks of a superior intellect (Schaff 2014, p. 2581). Schaff provides a categorized list with brief descriptions of his written works (Schaff 2014, pp. 2581-2583).

"§164. Basil the Great." (pp. 2583-2592).
    Schaff (with many others) recognizes Basil the Great and "the two Gregories" from Cappadocia as distinguished in a high degree (Schaff 2014, p. 2583). Basil, born to a wealthy and pious family in Caesarea about 329, was raised in piety. Two brothers and a sister are considered saints in the East, one of them being Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, one of the two Gregories. His friendship with Gregory of Nazianzen, began between 351 and 355, in schooling at Athens (Schaff 2014, p. 2584). He and Gregory, unlike their classmate Julian (the Apostate), held fast to their Christian convictions. Schaff observes that Basil and the two Gregories showed broad knowledge and appreciation for the natural world (Schaff 2014, p. 2585). This set them apart from many philosophers, who took little interest in the created order.
    Schaff suggests that the Cappadocian Fathers may have favored the beauty of nature over that of art due to pagan abuses of artwork (Schaff 2014, p. 2567). The beauty of God's creation transcends all our imitations of beauty.
    After his studies in Athens, Basil taught and practiced rhetoric in Caesarea, but in 360 he traveled to Syria and Egypt in order to explore monasticism (Schaff 2014, p. 2588). This became the pattern for his life. The separation from temporal cares and events struck Basil as a blessed life. In 364 Basil was appointed as presbyter, then bishop of Caesarea in 370 (Schaff 2014, p. 2590). A difficult life of asceticism, along with the stresses of hostility in community contributed to Basil's death in 379 (Schaff 2014, p. 2591). Schaff briefly describes a number of Basil's written works.

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Church Historians of the Third to Fifth Centuries

10/21/2025

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Church History
10/21/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter X. Church Fathers, and Theological Literature." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2562-2700). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 161-180).

"§161. Eusebius of Caesarea." (pp. 2562-2569).
    After a substantial bibliography pertaining especially to Eusebius, Schaff observes that this period, which he considers the third in the Church, saw many good and influential teachers (Schaff 2014, p. 2563). He sees the roots of classical rhetoric and the strength of Christianity coming together in these authors. Eusebius emerges as "the 'father of church history,' the Christian Herodotus" (Schaff 2014, p. 2563).
    Born after the middle of the third century in Palestine, Eusebius was influenced in his education by the work of Origen (Schaff 2014, p. 2563). After some education, he settled in Caesarea, where he was involved in a theological school (Schaff 2014, p. 2564). In 335 or 336, Eusebius, presiding over a council in Tyre, opposed Athanasius. At this time he was accused of cowardice in the face of persecution, having emerged unscathed. Eusebius served as bishop of Caesarea from about 315 until his death in 340.
    Eusebius was a party to the Arian controversy, though unwillingly (Schaff 2014, p. 2565). He attempted to hold to a middle ground. Schaff considers Eusebius to have been more allied with Arius than with Athanasius in the dispute. Yet Eusebius was silent about this controversy in his writings. Rather, his focus was on Constantine's political victories at the same period. Schaff describes Eusebius as "not a man of controversy, but of moderation and peace" (Schaff 2014, p. 2566), choosing not to take a solid stance on either side of the Arian dispute.
    Schaff considers Eusebius' character to be flawed by indecision as well. He proved a loyal court theologian, adapting to the views desired by Constantine (Schaff 2014, p. 2566).
    The wide reading and collecting of information carried on by Eusebius sets him apart (Schaff 2014, p. 2567). While his theological statements may be lacking in depth, he demonstrated a considerable breadth of knowledge, making his historical writings an outstanding source to this day. Despite this, Schaff considers his collection of information to be more compelling than his analysis of that information. Schaff describes Eusebius' various works in brief.

"§162. The Church Historians after Eusebius." (pp. 2569-2574).
    After a substantial bibliography, Schaff notes that Eusebius was followed by church historians who carried his work on through the end of the sixth century (Schaff 2014, p. 2570). Like Eusebius their analysis may have been lacking in rigor but their collation of source documents was significant. They did nothing to correct or expand Eusebius' work through the third century. All focus on the East, except when the West was in direct contact with the East.
    Schaff describes Socrates of Constantinople, born in 380 (Schaff 2014, p. 2570). He provided extracts from source documents covering 306-439). Hermeas Sozomen, from Palestine but working in Constantinople, provided a history covering 323-423, without apparent influence of Socrates (Schaff 2014, p. 2571). Theodoret of Cyrus, who became embroiled in the Christological controversies noted in the previous chapter, composed a history of 325-429 in five books (Schaff 2014, p. 2572). He recorded substantial information about hermits and monks, as well as a description of heresies, among many other works. Evagrius of Antioch, living about 536 until after 594, wrote an ecclesiastical history covering 431-594, describing political events, bishops, public buildings including churches, and earthquakes and other calamities. Thomas Lector of Constantinople, as well as writing a history from 431-518 also compiled abstracts of other authors. Schaff moves next to mention Nicephorus Callistus, of the 15th century (Schaff 2014, p. 2573). He picked up histories in the 6th century and brought them up to his time, though with more detail from the 10th century onward. In the West, Schaff notes only Rufinus of Aquileia, 330-410 (Schaff 2014, p. 2573). He translated and annotated Eusebius and moved his accounts forward to 392. Cassiodorus, in the sixth century, abstracted some of the Eastern historians (Schaff 2014, p. 2574). Jerome's biographies of important men also receive mention in brief.

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Laying Pelagianism to Rest

10/14/2025

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Church History
10/14/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§159. Semi-Pelagianism." (pp. 2550-2557).
    Schaff identifies semi-Pelagian thought as attempting to mediate between Pelagius and Augustine (Schaff 2014, p. 2551). This system takes a synergistic and somewhat legalistic approach to conversion and sanctification, normally requiring man to make the first step. Semi-Pelagian thought never coalesced into its own sect during our period.
    After Pelagianism was condemned as heresy, those who objected to an Augustinian view of predestination wrote about their understanding of security in Christ (Schaff 2014, p. 2652). Followers of Augustine responded with writings of their own. The writings of Prosper and of Haliarius particularly rejected the growing semi-Pelagian views (Schaff 2014, p. 2653). The semi-Pelagians held that while man was sick with sin he was not dead, and that he was able to cry out for divine assistance, with which he needed to cooperate (Schaff 2014, p. 2654). Among the semi-Pelagians Schaff considers John Cassian to be pre-eminent. Prosper of Aquitane emerged as the chief Augustinian to write against Cassian (Schaff 2014, p. 2585). Schaff describes a number of their writings in brief.

"§160. Victory of Semi-Augustinianism. Council of Orange, A.D. 529." (pp. 2557-2561).
    In the previous segment, Schaff made brief mention of synods in 472 and 475 in which an Augustinian predestination was condemned (Schaff 2014, p. 2557). These were provincial synods which resulted in a schism. Augustinian doctrine was by and large upheld. By the middle of the sixth century, semi-Pelagianism was not widely accepted (Schaff 2014, p. 2558). The Synod of Orange, in 529, approved an Augustinian outlook, articulating doctrines in some detail. Schaff provides numerous extracts (Schaff 2014, pp. 2558-2560). The Acts of the council were endorsed by numerous dignitaries and were forwarded to Rome, where pope Boniface II confirmed them in 530 (Schaff 2014, p. 2560). The controversy between Augustinian and Pelagian thought has resurfaced now and then, though not with as great an overall impact on doctrinal articulation as clear in the Middle Ages.

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Grace and Election in Augustine

10/7/2025

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Church History
10/7/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§157. Augustine's Doctrine of Redeeming Grace." (pp. 2538-2544).
    Schaff takes Augustine's argument for the redemptive grace of God to come first from an argument "upwards from below" (Schaff 2014, p. 2538). Here, because mankind is so unable to merit God's favor, redemption must be a gift from above. Secondly, arguing "downwards from above" he sees that as God is intimately involved in the natural world, he would also be involved in the spiritual world. God's presence pervades all creation, though never in a pantheistic sense (Schaff 2014, p. 2539). God's grace is taken to transform man, though granting forgiveness and life (Schaff 2014, p. 2540). Schaff does observe that in Augustine's usage justification includes some level of moral progress which most Protestants would take to be sanctification.
    Augustine, counter to Pelagius, considered the grace of God indispensable for creating and maintaining Christian virtue (Schaff 2014, p. 2540). By its nature, grace is unmerited (Schaff 2014, p. 2541). This turns the understanding of the Chrsitian life into the opposite of Pelagius' belief. We receive grace not because of our belief but so that we may believe. Grace is the cause. Belief is the effect. It is God's grace that changes us, rather than being our belief that changes God (Schaff 2014, p. 2542). The grace of God, by its very nature, draws people to God. This does not mean that humans cannot resist God. However, the grace of regeneration is something which is received by default.
    Augustine understood that grace "removes all the consequences of the fall' (Schaff 2014, p. 2543), but gradually. The change occurs over time. All the conversion, sanctification, and preservation of the Christian is a work of grace. Finally, Augustine saw that grace develops in man a self-determination to do good (Schaff 2014, p. 2544). This is the true freedom of the Christian.


"§158. The Doctrine of Predestination." (pp. 2544-2549).
    Augustine found that God's grace led him to understand an eternal and gracious purpose in calling people to himself. He therefore viewed predestination as "a necessary attribute of the divine will" (Schaff 2014, p. 2545). Schaff admits the problematic nature of predicating any actions, decisions, or willings of the eternal and omniscient God in terms of "before" or "after." Yet from a human vantage point we assign times to elements of a plan. There is therefore in every Christian some conception of God's grace as an eternal element which influences us in temporal matters. What set Augustine apart was his attempt to describe it in a systematic way (Schaff 2014, p. 2546). Schaff notes that while Calvin saw predestination as the starting point for his explanation of God's grace, Augustine saw it as the consummation. Augustine "recognizes simply a decree of election to salvation" rather than any form of double predestination (Schaff 2014, p. 2547).
    Pelagians, predictably, considered Augustine's view of predestination to be fatalistic (Schaff 2014, p. 2547). They took exception to his view of the fallen nature which resulted in condemnation. The election to salvation seemed arbitrary, as some are saved but not all. Yet Augustine insisted God could not be the author of sin. He knows all our sin from eternity, but only permits it, rather than causing it (Schaff 2014, p. 2548). Schaff recognizes in Augustine the concept that not all are elect.They will eventually show their lack of election through failing to persevere. Yet it is always due to the fault of the sinful human, never the sinless God. All people are to be called to repentance and faith, as we never know who the elect are.

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Pelagians' Charges, Augustinian Responses

9/30/2025

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Church History
9/30/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§155. Arguments for the doctrine of Original Sin and Hereditary Guilt." (pp. 2530-2533).
    Schaff moves on to consider the means used by Augustine to reach his conclusions about original sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2530). Many of his arguments were based on the Vulgate version of Romans 5:12, which affirms that in Adam's sin all have sinned, though Schaff takes the "in which" to refer to the nature of the world, rather than the nature of Adam personally to have led all into sin. However, Schaff agrees that Augustine rightly found a causal tie between sin and death. Augustine's exegesis does include other passages which make the picture clearer.
    Augustine further made arguments from the ancient practice of infant baptism "for remission of sins" (Schaff 2014, p. 2531). This practice signified an acceptance of the universality of sin in all humans. In contrast, while the Pelagians continued to baptize infants, they made it simply a ritual which confirmed the goodness of a good nature. The Pelagian reaction to Augustine's point of view was utter rejection.
    Schaff observes that Augustine, as well as other authors, while affirming the necessity of baptism, still would soften his view as to the nature of torment to which those unbaptized who died in early childhood would endure (Schaff 2014, p. 2532).
    A third branch of Augustine's argument was based on human experience (Schaff 2014, p. 2532). It is easily observed, and even among non-Christian observers, that humans are not as good by nature as we might wish (Schaff 2014, p. 2533).

"§156. Answers to Pelagian Objections." (pp. 2533-2538).
    Augustine did not write in a vacuum. He was engaged with Pelatians, interacting with them regarding their differences. Schaff cites Julian of Eclanum as a primary voice of Pelagianism (Schaff 2014, p. 2533). Julian's argument against Augustine was based on five points conceded by Augustine. Man is created by the good God. Marriage is good. If baptism remits sins, children of the baptized are good. If God is good, he holds nobody responsible for another person's sins. If humans can be perfectly righteous they cannot be inherently sinful.
    The first point, in Julian's opinion, forced Augustine to fall into a Manichaean dualism (Schaff 2014, p. 2534). However, Augustine held that humans are appropriately good in their nature, but the fall has introduced evil vice which clings to the nature.
    The argument about baptized people bearing sinless children is based on evil having no actual substance. Augustine maintained that baptism removed guilt, but that sin (concupiscentia) remained. This reality remains through generations (Schaff 2014, p. 2534). Despite the existence of lust within marriage, marriage is not to be condemned. It does not remove sin from a next generation (Schaff 2014, p. 2535).
    Pelagians would affirm it as unrighteous for God to condemn one man for another man's sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2535). Augustine, however, views humanity as one whole. Therefore, he sees all humans as participants in Adam's sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2536). In Augustine's view you cannot separate one generation from the whole context.

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Augustine's Understanding of the Fall

9/23/2025

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Church History
9/23/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§153. The Augustinian System: The Fall and its consequences." (pp. 2521-2526).
    Schaff, describing the Augustinian view of the human nature, considers it to be predicated on the "unity of the human race," an understanding of the nature of the first Adam and Christ as the second Adam, and a concept of all humans partaking of Adam's sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2522). Augustine takes all humans as personally sinning in Adam. The penalty of sin imposed on Adam is also imposed on all subsequent humans.
    In Augustine's view, there was one imperfection in the created order, the ability of humans to enter into sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2522). Falling prey to Satan's temptation, Adam and Eve ate the forbidden fruit. The rejection of obedience to God's command proved to be the sin which ruined all humanity (Schaff 2014, p. 2523).
    As Augustine saw the serious nature of the first human sin, he understood the penalty of sin to be commensurate (Schaff 2014, p. 2523). Schaff categorizes Augustine's list of consequences of sin in seven parts. He first identifies a loss of free choice. This consequence of sin is that the fallen human will necessarily sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2524). Second, human knowledge is hindered. Learning has become difficult. Third, free will is bound so that the sinner does what he does not desire. Paradise is closed to mankind, creating severe difficulties in life. Fifth, the desires of fleshly pleasure are elevated. This concupiscence interferes with all our endeavors (Schaff 2014, p. 2525). The higher and lower desires are at war against each other. A sixth result of the fall is the introduction of physical death in the world (Schaff 2014, p. 2526). Finally, the topic to be considered in the next section is "original sin and hereditary guilt in [Adam's] whole posterity" (Schaff 2014, p. 2526).

"§154. The Augustinian System: Original Sin, and the Origin of the Human Soul." (pp. 2526-2530).
    Schaff continues his evaluation of Augustine's anthropology by noting that Augustine considers all the descendants of Adam, apart from Christ, to be bent toward evil, thus to engage in actual sins themselves (Schaff 2014, p. 2527). Because of this corruption by original sin, all human thoughts and actions are, in some way, sinful. Augustine does, however, allow for there to be "different degrees both of sinfulness and guilt" (Schaff 2014, p. 2537).
    Because Augustine considered sin to be the universal condition of humans, he evaluated the various explanations of its transmission (Schaff 2014, p. 2528). A Traducian theory describes the soul originating along with the body. Thus, a sinful soul comes to be in conjunction with a fallen body. Under a second theory, each soul is created by God, not through procreation. This creationism sees God implementing the soul in the body at some point. Hence, the soul becomes corrupt by being connected with a body. The third theory, Platonic in origin, is that of pre-existence. Here, the soul was created in another world and sinned, thus being bound to a body as punishment. The first point of view was held by Augustine, the second by Pelagius, and the third by Origen. Schaff clarifies, that the historic Traducian view admits that the soul may have existed "in the thought and purpose of God" but not in any other way (Schaff 2014, p. 2629). All three views have some kernels of truth, and all have drawbacks.

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Pelagius and Augustine on Human Nature

9/16/2025

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Church History
9/16/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§151. The Pelagian System Continued: Doctrine, of Human Ability and Divine Grace." (pp. 2511-2516).
    Continuing to discuss the historical Pelagian movement, Schaff notes that Pelagians consider the state of humans to be the same before and after the fall (Schaff 2014, p. 2511). They see the difference in human nature to be nonexistent among different faiths except for an assistance by grace in the Christian. The basic good of the human nature will often be asserted based on the rather universal tendency of humans to do good deeds. Augustine would counter that such good deeds outside of the Christian faith on some level are self-serving. For this reason, they are not rightly seen as good works (Schaff 2014, p. 2512).
    Pelagians would counter the Augustinian view by defining good in terms of power to do something, will to do it, and the nature of the act (Schaff 2014, p. 2512). In Schaff's view, this separates the nature of man from his will or his actions. God, further, becomes a spectator who has no power or control over his creation (Schaff 2014, p. 2513).
    Rather than denying God's grace, since God doesn't really seem to be in charge of his universe, Pelagius affirms a sort of natural grace as well as a supernatural grace which enlightens and assists humans (Schaff 2014, p. 2513). Again, Schaff points out that the Pelagian understands free will to mean we can choose to imitate Christ. This makes Christ into an example (Schaff 2014, p. 2514). While grace is helpful to us, it is not necessary, since we have an example and a free will. In the end, Schaff finds that Pelagian thought has no logical need for the existence of God or for redemption in Christ (Schaff 2014, p. 2516).

"§152. The Augustinian System: The Primitive State of Man, and Free Will." (pp. 2516-2521).
    Before the rise of Pelagianism, Augustine had articulated his view of human nature, sin, and grace (Schaff 2014, p. 2516). Schaff does observe that, after his Confessions (400), Augustine did refine and clarify some of his views (Schaff 2014, p. 2517). However, in essence, they were unchanged to the end of his life.
    In his original state, Augustine describes mankind as innocent (Schaff 2014, p. 2517). This original state could be described as "the undeveloped germ" of perfection (Schaff 2014, p. 2518). Because there was no offense or disobedience, there was a sort of grace present, but not of a redemptive nature (Schaff 2014, p. 2518). The perfect state of innocence is not seen as exactly heavenly, as a child is not a mature human. Human powers, seen as gifts from God, could be developed for good or not. A foundational element in Augustine's thought was the "distinction between the possibility of not sinning and the impossibility of sinning" (Schaff 2014, p. 2519). Man's freedom before the fall still allowed for falling into sin. Augustine saw man as originally free in terms of action. Whether sinful or not, we have freedom to do this or that (Schaff 2014, p. 2519). A slightly different type of freedom is a freedom of choice. Here, counter to the Manichees, Augustine affirms that prior to the fall man could choose to sin or not to sin. This is specifically a freedom of the will. After the fall, this free will was limited. In Augustine's view it now applies to choice "between individual actions within the sphere of sinfulness and of justitia civilis" (Schaff 2014, p. 2520). A third freedom exists to the Christian, that of "the free self-decision or self-determination of the will toward the good and holy" (Schaff 2014, p. 2521). This is only available to Christians, made free by the Son of God. It is true freedom.

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Pelagianism Bites the Dust (Sort Of)

9/9/2025

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Church History
9/9/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§149. Position of the Roman Church. Condemnation of Pelagianism." (pp. 2500-2504).
    After two councils in North Africa in 416, the condemnation of Pelagius was forwarded to Pope Innocent, both in the official conciliar documents and a 'more confidential letter" (Schaff 2014, p. 2501). While Innocent agreed with the condemnation, he died in 417. His successor, Zosimus, received an explanatory letter from Pelagius, then heard a presentation by Coelestius, defending less controversial doctrines. Zosimus then censured the North African bishops for their rejection of Pelagius. Schaff concludes that this event marked the first of a number of instances of popes accepting some form of Pelagianism (Schaff 2014, p. 2502). Though remaining respectful, the Africans held a council in Carthage in 418, defining their opposition to Pelagius in eight or nine canons, which Schaff summarizes briefly.
    Zosimus, persuaded by the canons produced in Carthage, accepted them and condemned Pelagius and Coelestius (Schaff 2014, p. 2503). Numerous Italian bishops rejected the new position of Zosimus, resulting in ongoing tensions within the Church regarding Pelagianism. The Pelagians, in exile, continued to press their point, and, in 429 were received by the patriarch Nestorius in Constantinople (Schaff 2014, p. 2504). Schaff notes that Nestorius, along with Theodore of Mopsuestia, engaged in writing opposing Augustine's view of anthropology. With the death of this generation, Schaff sees Pelagianism as "externally vanquished" around 430 (Schaff 2014, p. 2504). There remained adherents, but there was no success as a sect.

"§150. The Pelagian System: Primitive State and Freedom of Man: the Fall." (pp. 2505-2510).
    Schaff concedes that Pelagian views of anthropology do make sense in a certain way. If human nature is understood empirically, it is reasonable to assume that humans are free in terms of moral will (Schaff 2014, p. 2505). The Pelagian view of ancient man takes Adam to be created in a sinless state and to be morally competent (Schaff 2014, p. 2506). His free will allowed him to serve God, and could be seen as the foundation of all ability to serve God. With this as the foundational premise, Pelagius took it as necessary that human freedom must include the ability to choose good or evil. Otherwise, it is not true freedom.
    The human will, in the end, is seen to become accustomed to making choices for good or for evil. In Pelagian thought, this moves people down the path of godliness or sinfulness (Schaff 2014, p. 2507). Freedom of choice must be used properly, so as to make a man holy. If practiced regularly, eventually a man could no longer sin.
    Pelagius viewed physical death as a necessity, which would occur even in the absence of sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2508). The connection between sin and death he took to indicate that since all people choose sin, at least occasionally, the result is that all people die. While Adam's sin led to his death, it merely serves as a bad example, rather than creating an inherited sinful state. The sin in the world is a learned pattern, as we see examples of sin in others. This results in growing habits of sin (Schaff 2014, p. 2509).
    In Pelagius' view, as with Adam, so also with Christ. The merit of Christ serves only as an example for the free will of the person who would desire to be good (Schaff 2014, p. 2510). Sin and righteousness are both choices we make.

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Outworkings of Pelagianism

9/2/2025

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Church History
9/2/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§147. External History of the Pelagian Controversy, A.D. 411-431." (pp. 2495-2497).
    Schaff observes that Pelagius, a monk from Britain, was well read, intelligent, and showed a good character of which Augustine was respectful (Schaff 2014, p. 2495). However, his morality was framed in legalism which rejected Augustine's view that it was by God's power that we could obey God's commands. We were to keep God's commands by our own effort. Having settled in Rome, Pelagius and his colleague Coelestius left from Rome in 411, going to Africa and missing seeing Agustine at Hippo. After a brief correspondence, Pelagius continued to Jerusalem while Coelestius sought a post as bishop in Carthage (Schaff 2014, p. 2497). Coelestius, facing opposition of his views at Carthage, was excluded from communion, went to Ephesus, and became a presbyter there.

"§148. The Pelagian Controversy in Palestine." (pp. 2497-2500).
    In Palestine, where Pelagius had gone, a controversy broke out in 414 (Schaff 2014, p. 2497). Pelagius' views were gaining traction, and becoming publicly known. The opposition was led by Jerome and Orosius. Jerome penned several books refuting the doctrinal claims of Pelagius (Schaff 2014, p. 2498). Schaff considers the views expressed by Jerome themselves to be semi-Pelagian in nature (Schaff 2014, p. 2499). At the same time, Orosius, a Spaniard, was sent to Jerome by Augustine bearing letters which spoke of the controversy. In a council in 415, Pelagius was viewed favorably. Because of Pelagius' facility in argument, he gained further favor, despite Jerome's misgivings (Schaff 2014, p. 2500).

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Monophysite Sects and Pelagians

8/26/2025

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Church History
8/26/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§145. The Monophysite Sects: Jacobites, Copts, Abyssinians, Aremenians, Maronites." (pp. 2476-2489).
    After a substantial bibliography, Schaff notes the persistence of Monophysite doctrine, as the sects had remained until his time (Schaff 2014, p. 2477). This stands in contrast to other erroneous sects, which have tended to die out. Schaff briefly entertains the advantages and disadvantages of the presence of Nestorian and Monophysite sects. Both have often served as an entry way to orthodoxy for Jews and Muslims. He briefly describes the many similarities they have to more orthodox Christianity.
    Schaff identifies "four branches of the monophysites: the Syrian Jacobites; the Copts, including the Abyssinians; the Armenians; and the less ancient Maronites" (Schaff 2014, p. 2479). The Jacobites trace their lineage to a sixth century patriarch of Antioch. They have a succession tracing back to the sixth century (Schaff 2014, p. 2480). The Copts, ethnically tied to ancient Egypt, though with influences from Greece and Arabia, built a patriarchy in Alexandria, dating back to the sixth century, though the patriarch normally lives in Cairo. The patriarch is always a monk and must be elected against his will (Schaff 2014, p. 2481). Coptic and Catholic Christians were at enmity with one another, with the Copts siding with the Saracens in the sixth century. They were later persecuted by the Saracents. The Coptic Christians have remained a small and impoverished underclass. The subgroup of Copts in Abyssinia tend toward syncretism and often hold to Jewish feasts (Schaff 2014, p. 2482). The Armenian Monophysite sect traces its origin to Mount Ararat and the fourth century (Schaff 2014, p. 2483). They are credited with developing the written version of the Armenian language. The Armenians split with the Greek church in 552, having been excluded from the council of Chalcedon (Schaff 2014, p. 2484). The empire, in the time of Schaff, was in the hands of Turkey and of Russia. Schaff compares their reception and treatment in the East to that of Jews in the West (Schaff 2014, p. 2485). Schaff notes that (in the 19th century) Protestant missionary work has been fairly successful in Armenian communities. The fourth branch of the Monophysites Schaff discusses are the Maronites, primarily located in Syria (Schaff 2014, p. 2486). This group, since the late 12th century, has tended to move toward Western Christianity and the Roman church.
    Schaff moves on to discuss controversy regarding anthropology, beginning with the Pelagian controversy (Schaff 2014, p. 2487). He provides a copious annotated bibliography of original source and later commentary (Schaff 2014, pp. 2487-2489).

"§146. Character of the Pelagian Controversy." (pp. 2489-2495).
    Schaff observes the distinction between the practical and concrete theology of the West over against a more speculative and developmental theology of the East (Schaff 2014, p. 2489). A study of biblical anthropology was not undertaken until the time of Augustine (Schaff 2014, p. 2490). Rather, Schaff sees the Greek fathers stressing human freedom in cooperation with divine grace, while the Latin fathers stressed human hereditary guilt versus God's grae. Pelagianism placed the responsibility on the human will, which must seek salvation. Augustine emphasized the divine will in conversion. After the death of Augustine, a semi-Pelagianism arose, which was more similar to the orthodoxy in the East (Schaff 2014, p. 2491). Both Augustinian and Pelagian influences continue in Christianity to the present time. Schaff treats each theologian charitably. In the end he recognizes, "The soul of the Pelagian system is human freedom; the soul of the Augustinian is divine grace" (Schaff 2014, p. 2492). He goes on to contrast the two systems in numerous foundational aspects.

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Two Natures in One Person - Still Difficult

8/19/2025

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Church History
8/19/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§143. The Monophysite Controversies." (pp. 2466-2472).
    While the council of Chalcedon was an attempt to bring a resolution to the Monophysite controversy, it was not immediately accepted, particularly in Palestine and Egypt (Schaff 2014, p. 2467). The concept of one nature in Christ was not easily overcome by orthodoxy. Though some would accept a composite nature of some sort, they would not accept two complete natures in the one person of Christ (Schaff 2014, p. 2468). The opponents of the confession of Chalcedon objected that the two natures would necessarily result in two separate persons. As a confessional reaction, the Monophysites were careful to confess that God was crucified for us. This confession was accepted by the Chalcedonian faction with the qualification that it was in the same sense that God was born of Mary.
    Citing recent research in his time, that of Giesler, Baur, and Dorner, Schaff describes a number of plots and intrigues which influenced the overall situation with Monophysitism (Schaff 2014, p. 2470). After the council of Chalcedon, the monophysite movement in the East proved schismatic, establishing separatist churches. The revolutionary group engaged in riots and armed conflicts for some thirty years. The monophysites fragmented further depending on how willing they were to admit some degree of a human nature in Christ (Schaff 2014, p. 2471).

"§144. The Three, Chapters, and the Fifth Ecumenical Council, A.D. 553." (pp. 2472-2476).
    Schaff describes a connection between the Monophysite controversy and emperor Justinian I (Schaff 2014, p. 2473). One of Justinian's hallmarks was to attempt to reconcile heretics and others who were separated from orthodoxy. Justinian's wife, who was a monophysite, attempted to obtain positions of authority for monophysite bishops. Meanwhile, Justinian's desire for reconciliation led him to issue statements and decrees which could be taken as accepting a variety of heretical views (Schaff 2014, p. 2474). Justinian's compromises included condemnation of some Antiochians who had been accepted as orthodox, a complaint about the followers of Cyril in Edessa, and a denial of the communicatio idiomatum (Schaff 2014, p. 2474). This became known as "the Three Chapters." Surrounded by this controversy, Justinian called an ecumenical council (the fifth), in 553, in Constantinople (Schaff 2014, p. 2475). Despite efforts to clarify doctrines, reconciliation was not complete. Schaff observes that the schismatic groups continued, though most gradually reconsidered their views or eventually died out. It was not until the time of Pope Gregory I that most bishops were again in agreement.

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Orthodoxy Emerging from a Firestorm

8/12/2025

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Church History
8/12/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§141. The Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451." (pp. 2451-2457).
    The events discussed previously, through the Robber Synod, resulted in Eastern Christianity being held by the Eutychians and monophysites (Schaff 2014, p. 2451). Pope Leo, who had been deposed by decree of the Robber Synod (though not in fact), responded by urging a synod in Italy, even as he circulated his Epistola Dogmatica, dealing with the matters of Christology which were taken as the cause of the Robber Synod. In the East, the death of Theodosius in 450 caused a political shift in favor of Leo and a desire for peace throughout the empire (Schaff 2014, p. 2452). Leo's original request for a council in Italy was replaced by a council at Nicaea scheduled for September of 451.
    The council which convened in Nicaea was shortly moved to Chalcedon due to "turbulent conduct" (Schaff 2014, p. 2453). In Chalcedon it was more possible for high government officials to attend and for disruptive conduct to be stopped. Approximately 500 or 600 bishops, almost all from the East attended. The group quickly sorted into those favorable to and those opposed to the Eutychians (Schaff 2014, p. 2453). Schaff notes that the discussion would not have been consistent with the forensic decorum accepted at his time (Schaff 2014, p. 2454). Dioscurus and the supporters of the Eutychians were rejected quickly (Schaff 2014, p. 2455). On October 22, a positive decree was passed, which is quoted by Schaff (Schaff 2014, p. 2455). The concept of the Son as one person but with two complete natures was central to the confession (Schaff 2014, p. 2456). Schaff notes that troubles with monophysitism would continue later (Schaff 2014, p. 2457).

"§142. The Orthodox Christology - Analyses and Criticism." (pp. 2457-2466).
    Schaff observes that while the first council at Nicaea dealt with the nature of the preexistent Christ, the fourth ecumenical council, at Chalcedon, dealt with the incarnate Logos and the relation of humanity and deity in Christ (Schaff 2014, p. 2457). The pseudo-Athanasian Creed likewise articulated the nature of the human and divine in Christ, and later, in the sixteenth century, became a confession held by all Protestants. The creed articulated at Chalcedon, as well as the pseudo-Athanasian creed, makes no effort at exhaustive explanation, but rather at specific description (Schaff 2014, p. 2458). In Schaff's view, the Chalcedonian creed strikes a mean between monophysitism and Nestorianism (Schaff 2014, p. 2459). He goes on to discuss the important points in turn.
    The second person of the Trinity was truly incarnate due to God's love, so as to redeem fallen humanity (Schaff 2014, p. 2459). In the incarnation, true man and true God exist in one person. The development of Christ in the womb of Mary remains a mysterious process which the creed does not explain (Schaff 2014, p. 2460).
    In the creed, nature and person are held to be separate from one another. "Nature of substance is the totality of powers and qualities which constitute a being; person is the Ego, the self-conscious, self- asserting, and acting subject" (Schaff 2014, p. 2460). There is one divine nature manifest in three persons in the Trinity. At the same time, there is one person of the Christ, but with both a human and a divine nature. Because Christ took on human nature, rather than assuming one particular human to himself, he was able to redeem human nature as a whole.
    Christ is, above all, one person, both divine and human (Schaff 2014, p. 2461). He remains one person, though having two natures. His self-consciousness is undivided, since he is just one person.
    The distinction of the human and divine natures in Christ is an important element in the Chalcedonian creed. The divine and human are not mixed or separated. Each remains what it is for eternity, never creating some third kind of nature (Schaff 2014, p. 2461).
    Christ, though having two natures, is one and only one person (Schaff 2014, p. 2462). His unity is no sort of illusion. There is no division in his person. In a similar way, we cannot divide a Christian into separate physical and spiritual persons.
    Because of this unity of persons, the works of Christ are not to be separated into those of his divinity and those of his humanity (Schaff 2014, p. 2463).
    To avoid any suggestion that, by taking on humanity in Christ, the Logos destroyed the trinity by bringing in a fourth person, the impersonality of the human nature in Christ is of importance. The second person of the Trinity remains the eternal Logos who had a personality and never lost it (Schaff 2014, p. 2463). In taking on humanity, he took on a nature, not a human person (Schaff 2014, p. 2464). The term used in this discussion is enhypostasia, a term which indicates that the human nature, with the divine nature, was never absent from the Logos.
    Schaff notes that criticisms of the Chalcedonian conception have risen over the years. However, "these imputations neutralize each other" (Schaff 2014, p. 2465). The creed is well balanced and serves to reconcile criticisms. At the same time, the creed leaves an open door for a broad range of studies.

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More Pendulum Swinging in the 5th Century

8/5/2025

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Church History
8/5/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§139. The Nestorians." (pp. 2442-2445).
    Schaff notes that, unlike most early heresies, those of Nestorianism and Monophysitism have continued (Schaff 2014, p. 2442). In his time, there were self-conscious groups of Nestorians who distinguished themselves from the Greek Orthodox. He outlines their characteristics in brief. Aside from distinctions in hierarchy, these groups particularly reject "the council of Ephesus . . . Mary as mother of God . . . use of images . . . purgatory . . . and transubstantiation" (Schaff 2014, p. 2443).
    The Nestorians descend from a group which gained asylum in Persia in the fifth century (Schaff 2014, p. 2443). These groups, Nestorian in belief, refer to themselves as Chaldean or Assyrian Christians. Schaff suggests that Mohammed's knowledge of Christianity may have come from contact with a Nestorian monk (Schaff 2014, p. 2444). In Schaff's time the sect was mostly resident in Kurdistan and Armenia. Another group, claiming descent from the work of the apostle Thomas, is in East India (Schaff 2014, p. 2445).

"§140. The Eutychian Controversy. The Council of Robbers, A.D. 449." (pp. 2445-2451).\
    The council at Ephesus, identified as the third ecumenical council, condemned Nestorianism but failed to articulate positive doctrinal stands (Schaff 2014, p. 2446). Peace was formed between Antioch (home of Nestorian thought) and Alexandria, but it was not a lasting peace. Alexandria moved in the opposite direction from Nestorian thought into "Eutychianism or Monophysitism, which urged the personal unity of Chrsit at the expense of the distinction of natures, and made the divine Logos absorb the human nature" (Schaff 2014, p. 2446). Here, while the Logos has human attributes, there is no human nature (Schaff 2014, p. 2447).
    In Schaff's opinion, the controversy was made more severe due to the successor to Cyril of Alexandria, Dioscurus, who sought supremacy for Alexandria (Schaff 2014, p. 2447). He worked with the monophysites to assail the Antiochians and gain greater power. The monophysite theologian Eutyches, whose name was attached to the heresy, stressed the divine nature in Christ as the object of worship, ultimately denying the remaining of the human nature in Christ after the incarnation. Theodoret, on the Antiochian side of the controversy, insisted on Christ having two natures in one person (Schaff 2014, p. 2448). In 448 Eutyches was deposed and banned by the church (Schaff 2014, p. 2449).
    The Synod of Ephesus in 449 assembled, presided over by Dioscurus, who appeared with monks and soldiers. Theodoret was excluded from the discussion (Schaff 2014, p. 2450). In this synod, Eutyches was affirmed, while all the Antiochians were rejected and hardly dared to speak. This synod, the second one in Ephesus, has typically been referred to as the "Council of Robbers."

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Nestorius and Nestorianism

7/29/2025

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Church History
7/29/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§137. The Nestorian Controversy, A.D. 428-431." (pp. 2427-2435).
    After providing numerous lightly annotated bibliographical references, Schaff reminds the reader of the nature of the Apollinarian heresy, which so emphasized the unity of person in Christ that the understanding of the human nature was jeopardized (Schaff 2014, p. 2428). In contrast, Antiochian theologians such as Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia held the natures apart to such a degree that Christ could seem to be two persons. This separation led to the teaching of Nestorius, from Antioch and then patriarch of Constantinople beginning in 428 (Schaff 2014, p. 2429). 
    Nestorius sought to collaborate with the emperor Theodosius II to rid the world of heretics (Schaff 2014, p. 2479). He was accepting of the Pelagian error. As a result, when Nestorianism was condemned, so was Pelagianism. The move against Nestorius took opportunity from his unapologetic use of the term "mother of God" for Mary (Schaff 2014, p. 2430). Nestorius' detractors interpreted him as saying that Mary was the one involved in the origination of the divine Logos (Schaff 2014, p. 2431). In an apparent attempt at conciliation, Nestorius began accepting Mary as "mother of Christ." 
    Schaff notes that Nestorius, as others in the Antiochian school of thought, was clear that God was never born, and that Christ had two natures in just one person (Schaff 2014, p. 2432). However, he did hold to some means by which the divine could assume the human nature and that the human could be indwelt by the divine. This unity is not "a personal unity, but only a moral unity" (Schaff 2014, p. 2432).
    Because of the assumption that Nestorius was teaching that the divine Logos was born of Mary, Nestorius was broadly attacked and condemned by 429 (Schaff 2014, p. 2433). The battle intensified with the move of Cyril of Alexandria to have Nestorius overthrown (Schaff 2014, p. 2434). Through a letter writing campaign, Cyril warned many, including Pope Celestine, of Nestorius, who was then condemned in 430 (Schaff 2014, p. 2435). Cyril wrote twelve anathemas against Nestorius, who responded in kind. The controversy resulted in an ecumenical council.

"§138. The Ecumenical Council of Ephesus, A.D. 431. The Compromise." (pp. 2435-2441).
    In response to the Nestorian controversy, Emperor Theodosius II called a council in Ephesus in 431 (Schaff 2014, p. 2436). In contrast to the first two ecumenical councils (325 and 381), this third one was passionate and resulted in only negative decisions, specifically, the condemnation of Nestorianism. Both Nestorius and the Alexandrian leaders, all with numerous supporters, were present. Because Nestorius refused to appear in public until all the bishops were assembled, the Alexandrian party anathematized Nestorius in the absence of his testimony (Schaff 2014, p. 2437). Arriving a few days later, supporters of Nestorius condemned and anathematized the statements of Cyril (Schaff 2014, p. 2438). The council of Ephesus was eventually dissolved late in 431, with the combatants set free with a command to return home (Schaff 2014, p. 2439). Two years later, a brief creedal statement composed by Theodoret was released, confessing the two natures in the one person of Christ (Schaff 2014, pp. 2439-2440). Nevertheless, Nestorian thought was condemned. He lived on until at least 439. Teachers who had influenced Nestorius were also broadly condemned (Schaff 2014, p. 2441). 

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Alexandria and Antioch - Two Natures in One Person

7/22/2025

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Church History
7/22/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§135. General View. Alexandrian and Antiochian Schools." (pp. 2418-2421).
Schaff acknowledges the connection of Christology and the doctrine of the Trinity (Schaff 2014, p. 2418). The incarnation is the link between the two studies. It is impossible to reach a sound view of redemption in Christian thought without an understanding of the Christ, as he is the redeemer. I Schaff's estimation, there are four essential elements in "the orthodox doctrine concerning Christ: He is true God; he is true man; he is one person; and the divine and human in him, with all the personal union and harmony, remain distinct" (Schaff 2014, p. 2419). Rejection of any one of these elements was at the heart of all manner of controversy in early Christianity.
    In the conflict between the Alexandrian and Antiochian schools, the Alexandrian point of view held the divine and human in Christ so close that there was danger of the humanity being lost (Schaff 2014, p. 2420). The Antiochian point of view, on the other hand, was in danger of separation of the divine and human. The challenge was to reach a thoughtful assertion of "the personal unity and the distinction of the two natures in Christ with equal solicitude and precision" (Schaff 2014, p. 2420). The controversies and disputes took place over approximately 200 years. Schaff sees it progressing in five stages, each with a name (Schaff 2014, p. 2421). The Apollinarian, Nestorian, Eutychian, Monophysite, and Monothelite controversies, in that order, began after the council at Nicea in 325 and continued until the council of Constantinople in 680. He goes on in future segments to discuss them in detail.

"§136. The Apollinarian Heresy, A.D. 362-381." (pp. 2421-2427).
    Apollinaris was the bishop of Laodicea. In his attempt to deal with the soul or spirit of Christ, he provoked theological discussion which had never happened previously (Schaff 2014, p. 2422-2423). Athanasius considered Apollinaris highly, yet wrote forcefully against his error.
    Apollinaris, wishing to guard against considerations of Christ having a split personality, and holding to a view that humans consist of a body, a soul, and a spirit, "attributed to Christ a human body, and a human (animal) soul, but not a human spirit or reason; putting the divine Logos in the place of the human spirit" (Schaff 2014, p. 2423). This view denied the complete humanity of Christ. Apollinaris defended his view based on Scriptures which indicate the Word becoming flesh, not spirit. The view of Apollinaris was rejected by Gregory Nazianzen and by Epiphanius (Schaff 2014, p. 2424). The doctrine was rejected by a council at Alexandria in 362. From 375 until his death in 390, Apollinaris worked with a sect of his own, pursuing his view. Schaff notes that Apollinaris' writings are lost, except for fragments quoted by his opponents (Schaff 2014, p. 2424).
    Apollinaris, denying the possibility of two natures in one Christ, asserted that the spirit, as the place where sin resides, must have been divine, while the soul, which lacks a will, and the body, would be human (Schaff 2014, p. 2425). Apollinaris further considered the suffering of Christ in only his humanity to be inadequate to work salvation. Thus the divine spirit suffered. In response to this idea, Apollinaris' opponents accused him of making the deity die. In Schaff's view, the doctrines of Apollinaris were adequately complex to make his disciples teach a wide variety of views (Schaff 2014, p. 2425).
    The Church refused the views of Apollinaris, especially because they could lead to a partially Docetic view and ruin the humanity of Christ, an essential element in the doctrines of salvation. "Athanasius, the two Gregories, Basil, and Epiphanius combated the Apollinarian error, but with a certain embarrassment, attacking it rather from behind and from the flank, than in front, and unprepared to answer duly its main point, that two integral persons cannot form one person" (Schaff 2014, p. 2426). This was a development of later orthodoxy. The Apollinarians were condemned in councils in 377, 378, and 381, and by imperial decrees in 388, 397, and 428 (Schaff 2014, p. 2426). 

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Controversy Surrounding Origen

7/15/2025

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Church History
7/15/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§133. The Origenistic Controversy in Palestine. Epiphanius, Rufinus, and Jerome, A.D. 394-399." (pp. 2411-2415).
    Schaff depicts the disputes which led to Origen's eventual condemnation as frequently petty and personal in nature (Schaff 2014, p. 2412). In Schaff's view, the move of a great mind, such as Origen's, often provokes further attempts to determine whether ideas are orthodox. An idea may appear unorthodox or even heretical at first glance. Further testing of the idea leads to acceptance or rejection.
    In the case of Origen, "independent followers of Origen drew from his writings much instruction and quickening, without committing themselves to his words, and, advancing with the demands of the time, attained a clearer knowledge of the specific doctrines of Christianity than Origen himself, without thereby losing esteem for his memory and his eminent services" (Schaff 2014, p. 2413). Others followed Origen but blindly, assuming he was right regardless of evidence which could be brought to the contrary. Similar in approach, but opposite in outlook, some opposed any idea articulated by Origen, and also condemned any discussion and debate about the ideas. Schaff finds the polemics from this perspective to be quite forceful (Schaff 2014, p. 2414). We note that these polemics, in large part, occurred after the death of Origen.

"§134. The Origenistic Controversy in Egypt and Constantinople. Theophilus and Chrysostom A.D. 399-407." (pp. 2415-2418).
    In Egypt, the bishop Theophilus of Alexandria, originally a supporter of Origen's views, after a dispute with other supporters of Origen, rejected Origen in forceful terms (Schaff 2014, p. 2415). This controversy eventually led to Chrysostom being drawn into the dispute, though he was not a philosophical theologian in any way. The dispute then came to be one between Theophilus and Chrysostom (Schaff 2014, p. 2416). Amid political intrigue, Chrysostom was banished and eventually was compared with John the Baptist in his death (Schaff 2014, p. 2417).
    After these controversies, Schaff finds theological inquiry and development in the Greek church to have come to a halt (Schaff 2014, p. 2418). The Christological controversies progressed no more in the East.

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The Interrelationship of the Persons of the Godhead

7/8/2025

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Church History
7/8/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§131. The Post- Nicene Trinitarian Doctrine of Augustine." (pp. 240-2404).
    Schaff observes that the Greek church largely ended inquiry about the Trinity with the Nicene Creed. However, in the West, Augustine carried the work farther, pointing toward the development of the Athanasian Creed, which Schaff takes to be dated in the fifth century (Schaff 2014, p. 2400). Schaff summarizes Augustine's developments.
    First, Augustine demonstrated that consubstantiality rejected subordinationism. While God is of one substance in three persons, the essence is unified, so no person of the Trinity is inferior to another (Schaff 2014, p. 2400). The persons of the Trinity do not subsist individually, but as a whole.
    Augustine taught that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, though primarily from the Father (Schaff 2014, p. 2401). He interpreted the Nicene Creed's statement of the Spirit proceeding from the Father as a polemical statement against those Pneumatomachi, who would make the  Spirit part of the created order. In general, Augustine's view of the role of the Son in sending the Holy Spirit was broadly accepted in the West and in many parts of the East. The controversy over the filioque arose in the ninth century, in the context of debate about its inclusion in the creed as an alteration (Schaff 2014, p. 2403). Schaff considers the root of the controversy not to be the actual doctrine. Rather, in his view, the issue is "the contrast between the conservative and stationary theology of the East . . . and the progressive and systematizing theology of the West" (Schaff 2014, p. 2403).

"§132. The Athanasian Creed." (pp. 2404-2411).
    Schaff provides a substantial bibliography for the Athanasian Creed. This creed is regularly considered the third of the ecumenical confessions, and signals the end of the orthodox development of description of the Trinity (Schaff 2014, p. 2405). Schaff presents it both in Latin and English, also including "parallel passages from Augustine and other older writers" (Schaff 2014, p. 2405).
    The Athanasian Creed is not considered to be by Athanasius or even from his time period. Schaff finds no trace of it through the third or fourth centuries (Schaff 2014, p. 2408). In the Greek church it first appears in the eleventh or twelfth century. Tellingly, those manuscripts omit the concept of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son (Schaff 2014, p. 2409). Schaff dates the composition to the mid fifth century, no later than 570, and probably in Gaul (Schaff 2014, p. 2409).
    The brief articles of the Athanasian Creed sum up the relationship of the persons of the Trinity to one another in such a way as to answer the various Christological debates of the early church (Schaff 2014, p. 2410). The Trinity is one in substance but three in persons. Christ has the entirety of a divine and a human nature. Those who deny these tenets are condemned. It is necessary to believe in the real and living triune God who saves through the divine/human Jesus.
    Schaff closes the segment with a brief bibliography of works concerning the controversies about Origen (Schaff 2014, p. 2410-2411) He proceeds in section 133 to discuss that controversy from the end of the fourth century. 

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