Category: Schaff-2014 - Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry

Redemption - The How

10/14/2019

Mondays are for Church History
10/14/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 153. Redemption.

After a brief and lightly annotated bibliography, Schaff speaks to the importance of the idea of redemption. “The work of the triune God, in his self-revelation, is the salvation, or redemption and reconciliation of the world: negatively, the emancipation of humanity from the guilt and power of sin and death: positively, the communication of the righteousness and life of fellowship with God” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19803). One of the key goals of every religion is some form of reconciliation with God. Christianity proclaims this through an objective reality of Christ’s death and resurrection, as well as the more subjective work of the Holy Spirit received by grace through faith. Schaff notes that while the Scriptures bear witness of all this truth, it has only gradually been unpacked and interpreted by the Church. “Experience anticipated theology” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19809). The language of early Christianity is based in a grateful attitude of thanksgiving rather than in analytical explanation of the implications of salvation. The doctrine of redemption is treated differently from those of the trinity or of the nature of Christ. However, Schaff emphasizes, “all the essential elements of the later church doctrine of redemption may be found, either expressed or implied, before the close of the second century” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19815).

Schaff goes on to describe the way various aspects of redemption were described in early Christianity, from Christ’s victory over Satan and his claims (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19821), to Christ’s ability to win in the conflict due to his person as God the Son (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19826), to the fact that Jesus’ death could satisfy the demands of God’s Law (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19832). A fairly comprehensive analysis appears in Irenaeus, but the concepts were present before his writing. Again, the explanatin came after the realization (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19844). Origen, differing from Irenaeus, sees Christ paying a ransom to Satan so as to purchase humanity from the owner of the sinful beings (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19856). This view was not broadly accepted. Schaff sees Athanasius as the other Greek father who analyzed this issue of redemption. Later analysis was within the Latin church.

Sabellius - An Ingenious Unitarian Heretic

10/7/2019

Mondays are for Church History
10/7/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 152. Sabellianism.

Schaff describes Sabellius as “by far the most original, profound, and ingenious of the ante-Nicene Unitarians, and his system the most plausible rival of orthodox trinitarianism” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19761). Sabellius had a significant influence in Rome as well as in the Pentapolis (Egypt). He was excommunicated by Dionysius of Alexandria in 260 or 261, starting a hot theological debate. Sabellius affirms the Holy Spirit, as opposed to many Monarchians, who concentrated on the Father and the Son (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19768). However, the trinity as Sabellius sees it is still modalistic. The persons of the Trinity are successive revelations of a unified God who lacks the threefold distinctive persons. The different revelations of God have different functions in the world. They do not act at the same time, because only one can exist at a time (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19776). Athanasius considered this a Stoic philosophy. Schaff relates it to Pythagorean philosophy as well (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19784).

More Deniers of the Trinity

9/30/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/30/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 151. Second Class of Antitrinitarians: Praxeas, Noetus, Callistus, Berryllus.

A second group of antitrinitarians, rather than seeing Christ as a merely powerful human, held to Christ’s deity but “sacrificed it to his independent personality, which they merged in the essence of the Father” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19716). These teachers, according to Schaff, had some acceptance even in Rome, through the third century. Prominent among the antitrinitarians, was Praxeas, who, when confronted by Tertullian, was unable to explain adequately that his doctrine did not include the suffrering of God the Father (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19722). Noetus of Smyrna, active at the very start of the third century, held the same positions, viewing all nature to come together into one, an idea similar to that of Heraclitus (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19729). Pope Callistus I took on the views of Noetus, declaring the Son to be “merely the manifestation of the Father in human form” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19736). For this reason, the Father also suffered on the cross. Schaff does note that much of this report comes from Hippolytus, who opposed Callistus vehemently. Finally, Berryllus of Bostra, according to the one passage found in Eusebius, “denied the personal pre-existence and in general the independent divinity of Christ, but at the same time asserted the indwelling of the divinity of the Father in him during his earthly life” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19749). In a consultation in 244 with Origen in Arabia, he was corrected and convinced of his error.

Early Denials of the Trinity - Monarchians

9/23/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/23/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 150. Antitrinitarians. First class: The Alogi, Theodotus, Artemon, Paul of Samosata.

Schaff observes that the doctrine of the Trinity was well articulated primarily due to controversies of the third century, in which various antitrinitarians arose, normally called Monarchians or Unitarians. Both titles imply the Godhead existing in only one person. Schaff cautions that “we must carefully distinguish among the two opposite classes: the rationalistic or dynamic Monarchians, who denied the divinity of Christ, or explained it as a mere “power”. . . and the patripassian or modalistic Monarchians, who identified the Son with the Father, and admitted at most only a modal trinity, that is a threefold mode of revelation, but not a tripersonality” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19668). The first, dealt with in this section, was refuted in Christianity but arose outside of the Church, particularly in Islam and in the Eastern Unitarian sects. In essence, Schaff finds, the first class of Monarchians saw Christ merely as a man, but endowed with special power of the Holy Spirit.

Among the first class Monarchians Schaff classes the Alogi, who rejected the idea of Christ as the Logos. They also rejected the Apocalypse as something of no use (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19682). The Theodotians, another group, arose in Byzantium. Theodotus denied Christ in a time of persecution, saying he was only a man, but later said he considered “him to be the supernaturally begotten Messiah” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19689). Theodotus was excommunicated between 192 and 202. His followers selected another bishop afterwards. The followers of Artemon were a bit later, after 202. Artemon considered the divinity of Christ to be an innovation rather than a tenet held by Christians from the outset. His followers were very enthusiastic about mathematics and pagan Greek philosophers (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19695). Finally, Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch after 260, considered the Son and the Holy Spirit “merely powers of God” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19702). He was accused of both heresy and other character flaws before being deposed in 268 or 269, after which time the first class Monarchians largely declined (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19709).

Trinitarian Christianity Articulated Not Invented

9/16/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/16/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 149. The Holy Trinity..

Having reviewed early Christian descriptions of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, Schaff observes that the formulation of the Trinity is complete, and that the teaching of the Trinity “has a peculiar, comprehensive, and definitive import in the Christian system, as a brief summary of all the truths and blessings of revealed religion” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19571). However, the Scripture normally speaks obliquely about the Trinity, treating with one or another person of the Godhead at a time. Schaff sees the Trinity as that which clearly sets Christianity apart from all the other world religions (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19579).

Schaff notes some opinions that the Trinity came from Platonism, neo-Platonism, or from an Indian religion, but discounts those ideas out of thand (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19592). There may have been a predisposition to see plurality in divinity, but the Trinity is decisively a New Testament explication. Schaff further notes that theologians have frequently tried to find Trinitarian references in nature, though they regularly prove inadequate (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19612).

The Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds are arranged around the Trinity, which formulation also appears in many doxologies and other traditional statements of the Church (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19619). With all this evidence, the claims that the Trinity was a relatively late theological invention do not stand up to scrutiny. Schaff details the articulations of various Fathers, showing that they differ primarily in their means of explanation rather than in their underlying concepts.

The Holy Spirit, A Real Person

9/9/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/9/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 148. The Holy Spirit.

Schaff notes that controversy about the Holy Spirit was largely absent prior to the 4th century, which can explain why there were relatively few attempts at explanation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19518). He does not take this in any way as an indication that there was less of a Trinitarian understanding of theology, merely that there was no need to defend the nature of the Holy Spirit. The ante-Nicene understanding was “that the Holy Spirit, the sole agent in the application of redemption, is a supernatural divine being, and taht he is an independent person; thus closely allied to the Father and the Son yet hypostatically different from them both” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19531). However, in some instances the Holy Spirit was seen as subordinate to the Father and the Son. Schaff cites Justin Martyr as holding and explaining this view (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19538). Clement of Alexandria and Origen also tend to this weakness, while still confessing the deity and eternity of the Holy Spirit. Irenaeus comes closer to a Nicene understanding (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19565). Again, the careful explanation seems to emerge from questions and disputes.

Jesus As the Only Partaker of Two Natures

9/2/2019

Mondays are for Church History
9/2/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 147. The Relation of the Divine and the Human in Christ.

Schaff considers that the discussion of the two natures in Christ and their relationship was not at a head until the fifth century. However, the idea is present in Irenaeus, who “teaches unequivocally a true and indissoluble union of divinity and humanity in Christ” counter to the Gnostics (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19504). He finds in general that the divine nature shows primarily in creation and the human nature in his receptive nature on earth. The two natures he sees bound together by the Holy Spirit, who overshadowed Mary. Irenaeus further sees Jesus as the second Adam and Mary, in a sense, as the second Eve, mother of all righteousness (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19511).The idea of Jesus as “God-man” comes from Origen, also the first to use the metaphor of iron warmed in a fire taking on the nature of the fire (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19517).

Fully Human and Fully Divine, Nothing Less

8/26/2019

Mondays are for Church History
8/26/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 146. The Humanity of Christ.

Schaff observes that both the divinity and the humanity of Christ were asserted in early Christianity. This is what divided the Christians from the Gnostics, who treated Christ as a disembodied spiritual figure. Irenaeus in particular pushed back against the Gnostics. If the Christ were not fully human he could not save humans (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19463). Hippolytus and Tertullian likewise argued forcefully for Christ’s full humanity. Schaff further observes that Clement of Alexandria was emphatic about Christ’s humanity though Origen tended to fall into a superhuman view of Jesus (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19490).

Christ's Divinity Confessed Then Described

8/19/2019

Mondays are for Church History
8/19/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 145. The Divinity of Christ.

Schaff observes that in the growth of theological commentary up to the 4th century, the deity of Christ was an important dogma. The rationalistic and Gnostic heresies tended to view Christ as elevated or superhuman, but normally along the same lines as pagan views of their gods (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19368). Counter to this ws the very high Christology of John, which clearly ascribed unique divine nature and dignity to Christ prior to the incarnation. Justin Martyr articulated this as he described the divine nature of Christ in two facets, “the immanent, or that which determines the revelation of God to himself within himself; and the transitive, in virtue of which God reveals himself outwardly (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19382). He sees Christ as the true object of worship, divine and unified with the Father. Schaff asserts that if Justin, Tertullian, and Origen had lived later they would have subscribed to the Nicene Creed (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19389).

The development of the Logos doctrine of Christ as God’s word/reason continued especially in Alexandria, where the Logos was taken very seriously but his specific personality was left rather obscure (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19403). Origen, Schaff says, was conflicted with the idea of the eternal generation of the Son, finding it impossible to consider the Father without the Son, so having a problem wit h”generation.” However, Origen tended to differentiate Father and Son in substance, eroding his divinity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19416).

In the West, apologists “reached the position that Christ must be one with the Father, yet personally distinct from him (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19422). Schaff observes that Polycarp and Irenaeus consciously avoided trying to explain the doctrine, preferring simply to state what we know from Scripture itself (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19429). Regardless, the apologists reach a conclusion that Christ is God the Son who created and redeemed the world and served as the definitive revelation of God to man. Their agreement was based on Scripture rather than any abstract speculation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19443).

Christ as Deity Incarnate

8/12/2019

Mondays are for Church History
8/12/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 144. Christ and the Incarnation.

After a lightly annotated bibliography about ante-Nicene understandings of the Trinity, Schaff observes that the earliest Christians clearly took Jesus’ divinity as absolutely essential to Christian teaching. “The denial of the mystery of the incarnation is the mark of antichristian heresy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19341). Christ received the kind of “prayer, praise, and adoration which is due only to an infinite, uncreated, divine being” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19348). Schaff finds evidence from the New Testament, early liturgies, writings of the Fathers, and from unbelievers who reported the actions of Christians. The divinity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit can be found from the beginning of Christianity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19360). Schaff does, however, admit that the theological articulations are not entirely clear from the start, probably because of the logical challenges in the description.

Historic Understanding of a Fallen World

8/5/2019

Mondays are for Church History
8/5/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 143. Man and the Fall.

Concerning the sinful fallen state of the world, Schaff notes, “It was the universal faith of the church that man was made in the image of God, pure and holy, and fell by his own guilt and the temptation of Satan who himself fell from his original state. But the extent of sin and the consequences of the fall were not fully discussed before the Pelagian controversy in the fifth century” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19283). “The origin of the human soul” was another issue that did not receive very extensive discussion. Schaff introduces three theories.

“Tertullian is the author of traducianism, which derives soul and body from the parents through the process of generation” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 129286). His assumption was that part of the nature of humans was that their reproduction included production of a soul.

Aristotle’s view, adopted by many in the East and by Jerome and occasionally Augustine, “traces the origin of each individual soul to a direct agency of God and assumes a subsequent corruption of the soul by its contact with the body, but destroys the organic unity of soul and body, and derives sin from the material part” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19290). Schaff notes there has been no church-wide response to this theory.

Origen, following Plato and Philo, argued for pre-existence. “It assumes the pre-historic existence and fall of every human being, and thus accounts for original sin and individual guilt; but as it has no support in scripture or human consciousness...it was condemned under Justinian, as one of the Origenistic heresies” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19297).

Christianity insisted on man’s need for redemption and his capacity for the same. The Greek fathers emphasized the free will, which asserted the capacity for salvation. The West emphasized our need for redemption and our inability to save ourselves (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19305). Schaff notes both emphases remain and neitehr group has generally been able to persuade the others.

Christian Scholarship Based on Christian Presuppositions

7/29/2019

Mondays are for Church History
7/29/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 142. God and the Creation.

Schaff insists that a Christian view of scholarship stands apart from the views of other groups, including those of non-Christian religions. “We must ever bear in mind that Christianity entered the world, not as a logical system but as a divine-human faith; and that the New Testament is not only a theological text-book for scholars but first and last a book of life for all believers (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19235). The historic confessions of Christianity are centered on the reality of the Trinity. For this reason, Schaff says, Irenaeus begins to combat Gnosticism using the foundation of the biblical view of God and creation. A view of God is “at the bottom of all religion” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19249). The biblical view of God, then, as recognized in the New Testament and certainly by the early apologists, includes Jesus as God the Son. In creation and redemption, then, the God of Christianity is completely set apart from the gods of the Gnostics. This is clear in Tertullian, who emphasizes the corporeality of God the Son (Schaff 2014, Loc. 129256).

Schaff also observes that the unity of God, inherited from Judaism, “stands apart from the pgan polytheism and Gnostic dualism. The concept of creation out of nothing by the word of God also is strikingly different from the pagan and Gnostic teachings (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19263). For this reason, also, evil “is not an original and substantial entity, but a corruption of nature, and hence can be destroyed by the power of redemption” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19270). Redemption depends on a correct view of creation. Schaff observes that Origen’s heresy was rooted in a view of creation which had “an endless succession of time” and therefore became Platonic (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19277).

Variants on the Apostles' Creed

7/22/2019

Mondays are for Church History
7/22/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 141. Variations of the Apostles’ Creed.

In this section, Schaff presents a comparative table showing the Greek and Latin texts of the Apostles’ Creed at different times, also showing allusions and expansions in the rules of faith and in the Nicene Creed (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19148). Schaff helpfully provides the approximate dates of the various manuscripts. Unfortunately, in the electronic edition, the parameters of the table are not very clear. However, the texts are dated from about 170 through the Council of Chalcedon in 381. This would be a very interesting chart if it were adequately organized.

Creeds as Summaries of Doctrine

7/15/2019

Mondays are for Church History
7/15/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 140. The Rule of Faith and the Apostles’ Creed.

Schaff provides an extensive bibliography at the start of this section, with helpful annotations as usual (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19074). He goes on to observe that a “rule of faith” was commonly understood to be a summary of Christian doctrine, which would regularly be useful in catechesis prior to baptism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19093). These would then also be used to make distinctions between those who were Christians and those who were not. There are various such documents, or fragments of accounts of the, dating back to the late 2nd century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19105). Though they come from different authors and different places, they expressed the same version of Christianity. The development of such confessions was largely ended in the East after the Nicene Creed was widely accepted as an authoritative fundamental creed (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19110). Meanwhile, the “Roman Symbol,” which we know as the Apostles’ Creed, was more prominent in the West. Schaff thinks if it had actually been from thepen of the apostles it would have had more honor and been better preserved (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19116). However, it exists in a shorter and a longer form, with the earliest versions coming from the third or second century (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19122). The longer form is what we traditionally use now. Schaff finds that both the Apostolic and Nicene Creeds reflect the teaching of the earliest Christians and center on Christ and His work (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19132). After the sixth century, a tradition arose which assigned different parts of the Apostles’ Creed to the different apostles. Schaff provides this tradition in Latin (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19139).

Tradition as Publicly Held Truth

7/8/2019

Mondays are for Church History
7/8/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 139. Catholic Tradition.

After a brief bibliography, Schaff observes that the Church fathers considered there to be a “common faith of the church, as orally handed down in the unbroken succession of bishops from Christ and his apostles to their day, and above all [as] still living in the original apostolic churches, like those of Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, and Rome” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19035). Counter to the idea of tradition in Christianity, the Gnostics held secret traditions to convey secret truth. Christian tradition, and therefore truth, is held publicly (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19040). Schaff observes that Tertullian boldly said that heretics could not even appeal to Scripture because the Scripture could not be rightly understood outside the context of the Church (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19046). This may also be the root of much teaching of apostolic succession, which has to do not only with human heritage but also the work of preserving God’s Word and a proper understanding of it accurately. Schaff does caution that we should remember the Church at that time was not many generations distant from the apostles. Views of tradition and succession changed over several centuries (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19058). We are also reminded that Irenaeus and Tertullian were both known to take exception to some stands of some Church leaders, but always so as to pursue accurate and faithful understanding of Scriptural doctrine and practice.

The essence of apostolic tradition, according to Schaff, is holding faithfully to the way the Apostles interpreted Scripture. “It is one and the same gospel which the apostles preached with their lips, and then laid down in their writings, and which the church faithfully hands down by word and writing from one generation to another” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19073). This is the essence of tradition.

Canonicity Recognized

7/1/2019

Mondays are for Church History
7/1/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.
§ 138. The Holy Scriptures and the Canon.

Schaff turns his attention to canonicity and the authority of Scripture because he considers it foundational to theology. He insists that Scripture is the authoritative source of doctrine (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18888). For this reason, separating canonical writings from others is very important, especially since numerous apocryphal writings exist, some contradictory to the truth. Schaff recognizes the Old Testament as we have it, along with the Apocrypha which were included in the Septuagint, as a body of work passed on to Christianity. The New Testament as we have it was gradually recognized during the 1st through 4th centuries (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18894). Marcion’s canon, from the mid second century, seems to be a reaction against a recognized collection of writings, some of which Marcion was rejecting (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18900). By the time of Eusebius, there was a recognition of the “homologoumena,” the four Gospels, Acts, thirteen letters of Paul, 1 Peter, and 1 John, recognized as authoritative (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18905). The other seven books, called by Eusebius “antilegomena,” were not as wholeheartedly recognized, but were included in the two solid old Greek New Testament manuscripts which date from Eusebius’ time (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18911). Several other documents, considered “spurious” by Eusebius, are generally not found in manuscript evidence along with the writings recognized as canonical, though some are found in some manuscripts (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18916). The canonical lists showing the New Testament as we have it now first appears in 393 in Hippo, then again in 397 in Carthage. A list from 363 in Laodicea has the same collection but omits Revelation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18922).

Schaff recognizes that the church fathers considered that the Holy Spirit had given the text of the New Testament through the authorsin a completely accurate way but without restricting the personality and expressive mode of the writers (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18933). Some, especially in Alexandria, considered the same kind of inspiration to influence other works, but this was a rare stance, not accepted widely (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18938). The apologists Tertullian and Origen took the Old and New Testament alike as authoritative and rejected doctrines not proven from Scripture (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18944).

With the rise of Gnosticism, a different way of using Scripture grew. In the face of opposition, interpretation of the biblical text took on more of a rational and polemic tone, rather than being used for general edification (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18944). Interpretation was generally allegorical rather than being based on grammar or historical methods. The allegorical interpretation could, at times, “spiritualize away the letter of scripture” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18956), so is not broadly accepted today. While the Fathers are not unanimous in all their opinions, they do typically follow the same overall principles of interpretation.

Schaff goes on to review Eusebius’ account of how Scripture is recognized and used. Schaff quotes Eusebius (mostly in translation) in his description of the Homologoumena (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18968), summarized above. In this portion of his writing Schaff helpfully points us to the pertinent locations in Eusebius. He does the same for the antilegomena and the spurious books (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18986). Schaff closes the section by observing that the heretical books, among which he lists the “Gospels of Peter and Thomas” as “worthless and impious” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18991).

Schaff observes that the shape of the canon was apparently complete and accepted, but not discussed in detail at the 1st Council of Nicea. The Scripture was treated as authoritative and its content was not in question. However, in the second half of the fourth century lists of documents came into circulation (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18998). By this time, Revelation and the two epistles of Clement were still in some doubt, but there was very broad agreement on the other documents. Schaff notes that these questions were not a matter of debate again, but were confirmed in the 1546 Council of Trent (Schaff 2014, Loc. 19021).

A Sigh of Relief as Orthodoxy Is Articulated Again

6/17/2019

Mondays are for Church History
6/17/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 12. The Development of Catholic Theology in Conflict with Heresy” Sections 137-158, Loc. 18758-20235.

§ 137. Catholic Orthodoxy.

After a brief bibliography, Schaff states that the theological conflicts of he early Christian period, particularly with the Gnostics, provoked orthodox Christians to respond with assertions and explanations of doctrinal truth (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18763). “From this time forth the distinction between catholic and heretical, orthodoxy and heterodoxy, the faith of the church and dissenting private opinion, became steadily more prominent” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18773). The idea of catholicity, or universally held truth, was affirmed. In this process, Schaff notes the differences between Greek and Latin patterns of theological orientations also began to emerge. While in the Greek world there was more emphasis on ideas and the more abstract types of knowledge, in the Latin world the teaching tended to point more toward the practical and concrete (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18785). Schaff finds the work of Irenaeus as a strong influence to mediate between East and West. He refutes Gnosticism in no uncertain terms (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18796) even while he makesplain interpretations of ideas such as the Trinity (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18808).

Schaff moves on to describe “heresy” as something which departs from the established opinions. Eventually it took on the additional meaning of pursuing error (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18814). Additionally, for some time Christianity was considered a sect of Judaism, but the term “sect” later came to mean a dissenting minority faction (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18820). By the late 300s, Christians had begun to systematically catalog and categorize heresies and sectarian groups. Although their definition is elusive, the practices of heretics became easier to identify (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18826). Schaff also notes that making theological speculations was not necessarily identified as committing heresy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18831). On the contrary, Schaff admits that a serious pursuit of orthodoxy could push someone into some kind of bigotry, which would be difficult to overcome. Yet it is necessary to pass on the truth carefully and accurately (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18854).

Schaff notes that the ante-Nicene heresies and the punishments of them differed from those after the Nicene period. First, the early heresies were radical departures from Christianity, held without room for compromise (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18859). The punishment before the Nicene period was entirely churchly, culminating in excommunication, but bearing no civil penalties. After Nicea, some civil penalties tended to be added (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18865).

Antagonism between Light and Darkness

6/10/2019

Mondays are for Church History
6/10/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 11. The Heresies of the Ante-Nicene Age” Sections 112-136, Loc. 17655-18757.

§ 136. The Manichaean System.

Schaff asserts that Mainchaeism is constructed from many different elements and that it at once seems very materialistic in nature and also opposed to materialism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18696). It contains a strong dualism and asceticism. It rejects Judaism and th Old Testament, taking the apocryphal gospels as authoritative.

Manichaen theology is based on “an irreconcilable antagonism between the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18702). This is an eternal conflict from which the current world sprang. It sees Adam as created by Satan (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18708), with Eve also provided by Satan. Cain and Abel are children of Satan and Eve, while Seth is the child of Adam and Eve. All humans have a combination of light and darkness, but males have more light. The Christ redeemed light from darkness. Manichaeism rejects any idea of an incarnation and asserts that the apostles, bound by Judaism, falsified their claims (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18713). Schaff considers that Manichaeism, “instead of being, as it pretends, a liberation of light from darkness, is really a turning of light into darkness” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18725).

Because Manichaeans considered matter to be intrinsically evil, they engaged in rigorous asceticism (Schaff 2014, Loc. 418725). The goal was to get the soul, which is good, set free from bondage to matter. This was accomplished through a threefold “seal” - purity in words and diet, purity in property, and celibacy (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18732).

The Manichaeans had a strict, heirarchical organization (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18736). There were twelve apostolic figures, 72 bishops, and, under them, various other authorities (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18740). Their worship consisted of four daily times of formal prayers, focused on honoring the sun as the redeemer-light. They held some sacraments, but those were kept largely secret, so Schaff notes we know little of them (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18748).

Manichaeism, a Gold Standard of Heresies

6/3/2019

Mondays are for Church History
6/3/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 11. The Heresies of the Ante-Nicene Age” Sections 112-136, Loc. 17655-18757.

§ 135. Mani and the Manichaeans.

As Schaff introduces the Manichaeans he first provides a bibliography, with Islamic sources first. He then observes a number of critiques coming from Christian sources (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18615). Schaff describes Manichaeism as “the latest, the best organized, the most consistent, tenacious and dangerous form of Gnosticism, with which Christianity had to wage a long conflict” (Schaff 2014,18656). He considers both Manichaeism and Islam to be religions which invented divine revelations, but that Manichaeism was dualistic and anti-Jewish, while Islam called upon some Jewish roots and is monotheistic.

The philosophy traces roots to Mani, a third century Persian, who borrowed some elements of Christianity into his Zoroastrian sect about the year 238 (Schaff 2014,18662). He set himself up as a new apostle, then, when he fled to India and China, incorporated some elements of Buddhism into his doctrine (Schaff 2014,18668). He was eventually killed about 277. From that point the sect spread into the broader Mediterranean region, where it developed more similarities to Christianity before losing most of its popularity in the sixth century (Schaff 2014,18679).

Manichaeism had a very tight organization and made attempts at a solution for evil. It showed ascetic tendencies, persuading people of its holiness (Schaff 2014,18679). The heresy attracted Augustine for some years before his conversion, after which he wrote specific refutations of the doctrines (Schaff 2014,18685). Though the movement largely lost power in the fifth and sixth centuries, there were some features which remained influential and which lasted into the thirteenth century (Schaff 2014,18691).

Gnosticism, Radically Individualistic?

5/27/2019

Mondays are for Church History
5/27/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 11. The Heresies of the Ante-Nicene Age” Sections 112-136, Loc. 17655-18757.

§ 134. Other Gnostic Sects.

Schaff notes that several of the Christian fathers make mention of different Gnostic groups. He describes three with brief details. The Docetists said that Christ did not have a real body. Therefore he couldn’t actually suffer and die (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18602). The Antitactes were a group of Gnostics who were radically licentious. They did not follow one particular founder. Thirdly, the Prodicians considered themselves above all the law, a special royal order (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18608). The points of similarity among many of the Gnostics is a rejection of the law and of the biblical view of one God as the creator and sustainer of all.

Hermogenes - eternal matter

5/20/2019

Mondays are for Church History
5/20/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 11. The Heresies of the Ante-Nicene Age” Sections 112-136, Loc. 17655-18757.

§ 133. Hermogenes.

Schaff introduces his readers briefly to Hermogenes, who is commented on by both Tertullian and Hippolytus (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18590). Hermogenes was a dualist who considered the world to be created from an eternal matter, some of which resisted God so became evil. He was fairly orthodox in many ways, but did engage in speculation which went well beyond biblical ideas.

Justin the Gnostic - a footnote in history

5/13/2019

Mondays are for Church History
5/13/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 11. The Heresies of the Ante-Nicene Age” Sections 112-136, Loc. 17655-18757.

§ 132. Justin the Gnostic.

Schaff introduces on Justin the Gnostic, a very different individual than the better known Justin the Martyr. This man’s dates and places are unknown. “He propagated his doctrine secretly, and bound his disciples to silence by solemn oaths” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18578). One of his books, called Baruch, was abstracted by Hippolytus. While Hippolytus saw him as a Naassene, he considered the serpent as the cause of evil, not of good (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18583). Justin, as is typical of Gnostics, identified multiple divinities, some good and some bad. They engage in sexual reproduction, populating the spirit world and divisions of angels (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18585). The serpent arranged for Jesus to be nailed to the cross, which freed him “from his material body” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18590). This allowed him to rise to the good God and be the deliverer.

Tatian - A Gospel Harmony, Great, But Be Sure to Avoid All Pleasure

5/6/2019

Mondays are for Church History
5/6/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 11. The Heresies of the Ante-Nicene Age” Sections 112-136, Loc. 17655-18757.

§ 131. Tatian and the Encratites.

Schaff provides a relatively extensive, lightly annotated bibliography for Tatian (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18541). Tatian was a convert of Justin Martyr but later became a Gnostic. He rejected Jewish roots of the Christian faith and held to a severe asceticism, including a rejection of marriage and other pleasures. Schaff observes that his scholarly work, most notably a harmony of the Gospels and a treatise speaking against Gentiles do not seem to be Gnostic in nature (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18565). His followers, known as the Encratites, rejected meat, wine, and marriage, not for pragmatic purposes, but because they viewed those things as intrinsically evil (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18571). Schaff is clear that the rejection of wine or substitution of other things for it is not appropriate in communion.

Carpocrates - Jesus As Human Who Ignores the Creators of the World

4/29/2019

Mondays are for Church History
4/29/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 11. The Heresies of the Ante-Nicene Age” Sections 112-136, Loc. 17655-18757.

§ 130. Carpocrates.

Carpocrates, probably from Alexandria, lived at the time of Hadrian. Schaff finds in his form of Gnosticism that Christ is on a level with other philosophers. Humans, like Jesus, came from a spiritual creation, but Jesus “remembered those things which he had witnessed within the sphere of the unbegotten God (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18525). This allowed him to escape the evil creators of this world. We can be like Jesus if we also despise those angelic creators of the world (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18533). This is apparently done by means of magical arts, potions, and communing with spirits, as well as by living a licentious life.

Saturninus - An Unknown Deity

4/22/2019

Mondays are for Church History
4/22/19

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Amazon Kindle Edition, 2014.
Volume 2, Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325, “Chapter 11. The Heresies of the Ante-Nicene Age” Sections 112-136, Loc. 17655-18757.

§ 129. Saturninus (Satornilos).

Saturninus was a contemporary of Basilides, active in Antioch. He held to a severe asceticism and a very sharp distinction between God and Satan (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18517). In Saturninus, God is completely unknown, emanating the different sub-realms of the realm of light. At the bottom of the spectrum of creation is the God of the Jews, known as Demiurge. Satan, the opponent is outside of this realm of light. Man is created in the realm of Satan but with a spark of light. He is opposed by Satan, who cannot be overcome by the Jewish God or the prophets (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18522). Finally, the aeon Nous is sent “with an unreal body, as Soter on earth, who teaches the spiritual men by gnosis and strict abstinence from marriage and carnal food to emancipate themselves from the vexations of Satan, and also from the dominion of the Jewish God and his star-spirits, and to rise to the realm of light” (Schaff 2014, Loc. 18525).