Category: Gonzalez-2010 - Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry

Where Do We Go from Here?

5/8/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 5/8/17

As we conclude this survey of Church history which began nearly two years ago, it’s a good idea to ask ourselves what we’ve learned from our past. The events and philosophies we are seeing today are profoundly influenced by a wide variety of historical and cultural elements. We are not in a vacuum. How are we going to approach the future? How do we identify appropriate goals and the activities which might reach those goals? Are the God’s goals as described in the Scripture?

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 38, “Epilogue: A Global History” Loc. 8201-8288.

Gonzalez observes that with recent developments in Christianity the landscape of Christian doctrine and mission has been changed a great deal (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8206). There are now many different centers for Christianity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8022). Views of theological orthodoxy have changed and diversified as well (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8029). The prevailing postmodern philosophies present many challenges to the way Christian truth will be articulated (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8244). Gonzalez suggests that the discourse of Christians will need to take on a more globalized tone to reach the world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8266).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Where's the Heart of Christianity?

5/1/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 5/1/17

For much of the Christian period the heart of Christianity has been in Western Europe. In the last seventy years or so it may well have shifted to other parts of the world. Gonzalez examines the way Christianity is expressed in some of these different regions.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 37, “Vitality at the Periphery” Loc. 7713-8200.

Gonzalez notes that in the second half of the 20th century Christianity was on the decline in the Western world but was thriving elsewhere (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7726). India saw striking revivals, especially in the charismatic movement (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7748). There were also notable moves to encourage unity among diverse groups of Christians (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7763). In China after World War II missionary activity and much training of leaders stopped (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7778). By the 1960s there was widespread persecution. As the persecution lifted the Church emerged, larger and stronger than before the Cultural Revolution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7793). The climate in China was difficult to analyze due to a division between governmentally approved and disapproved churches. Japan saw growth, especially among Pentecostal groups, during this time period (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7815). In Korea, both before and after the division into North and South Korea, Christianity grew rapidly, especially in the lower classes (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7830). Korea was also active in sending missionaries overseas in the 20th century (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7837).

In Africa, home of some of the earliest Christians, the 20th century saw direct attacks in both World Wars as well as a strong Islamic influence (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7853). The Ethiopian Church engaged in missionary activity by emigration. Roman Catholicism grew even as colonialism waned and nations affirmed their own sovereignty (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7860). Among Protestants there was “explosive” growth (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7867). In the conflicts against Islam as well as those against a colonial past, Christianity was a source of peace and justice. The Pentecostal movement especially reached out effectively to Africa (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7882). Gonzalez notes that locally developed church bodies have membership of 80-90 million and send missionaries to all parts of the world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7896).

Latin America continued its trend of broad tolerance but governmental authority over some affairs of the Church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7911). There were moves on the part of the Church to assert itself as the champion of the poor (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7942). The Pentecostal movement saw the most notable numeric growth, through emotional revivals (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7950). Much of the shift in Latin America seems to be from a form of nominal Catholicism to an enthusiastic Protestantism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7972). Gonzalez notes that there was not a strong ecumenical movement in Latin America. He suggests that fear of Catholic influence may have discouraged cooperation (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7995).

Around the world, churches tended to band together in the 20th century. Gonzalez does not see this as a pursuit of unity in doctrine but that “all Christians, whatever their race or nationality, would engage in a common search for the meaning of obedience to Christ in the modern world” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8011). Organizations tended to gather diverse groups so as to ask questions together. They would share ideas rather than direct policy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8018). An emphasis on mutual agreement rather than specific doctrinal truth governed many of the ecumenical meetings (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8039). The World Council of Churches, which formed after World War II, was a natural outcome of these movements (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8069). The declarations of the World Council tend to focus on widely held ideas of peace and justice (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8090). Toward the end of the 20th century the Council took a greater interest in matters such as ecology (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8097). Gonzalez observes that regional and national ecumenical organizations also flourished during the 20th century (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8105).

In the world of theology, Gonzalez considers the very important phenomenon of “contextual” theologies (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8127). Most of these consider the gospel as “a message of liberation for those in their own particular context” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8142). There have been a variety, often called liberation theologies. Gonzalez considers feminist theology to belong to this group as well (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8142). These theologies typically use a Marxist model of revolution. After seeing a problem, the theology judges its nature, then takes action to overcome it (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8158). Gonzalez traces these theologies briefly to many parts of the world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8166).

Gonzalez concludes this chapter by observing that missions have often had a goal of “three selves: self-government, self-support, and self-propagation” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8181). In recent years, younger church bodies have raised questions which challenge traditional theology. These questions are often accompanied by missionary activity in which post-Christian regions are influenced (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 8188). The work continues as new church bodies are prepared to expand to a variety of regions.

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

20th Century Protestants in America - A New World

4/24/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 4/24/17

Protestant Christianity in the United States took a different turn than it did in Europe during the 20th Century. There have been a number of very powerful economic and cultural factors involved, both in changing the face of Christianity and those which have been strongly influenced by the rise and decline of different features of Christianity.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 36, “Crisis at the Center: Protestantism in the United States” Loc. 7386-7712.

Involvement in World War I was not as strong an influence on the United States as on European countries (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7392). The nation did not pursue reconciliation. On the contrary, Gonzalez notes isolationism and surges in discriminatory activities (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7407). The social reform moves focused on prohibition of alcohol and corruption (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7429).

Economic disruption, beginning in October 1929, caused mass unemployment and a depression beginning in 1930 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7445). Christian leaders who turned to socialism, such as the Niebuhr brothers and Paul Tillich, viewed Christianity as a social change agency (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7477). To accomplish change, the church would urge governmental involvement (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7492). The Depression finally ended in 1939 as the United States prepared to join World War II (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7499). During World War II churches tended not to be involved in shows of national pride, moving more toward conciliation (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7515).

The nuclear age, beginning with a bomb but also promising nuclear energy, deeply influenced the postwar generation (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7515). The economy was very active and affluent. Jobs were abundant. Education was readily available (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7522). Churches, especially during the Cold War, became havens where people would show their loyalty to America. Therefore, they grew rapidly beginning by 1950 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7529). The revivalist tradition was reborn, especially by the work of Billy Graham (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7537). At the same time, Christianity retreated from urban areas, leaving a generation of low income urban dwellers with little Christian witness (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7544).

A move toward desegregation and civil rights emerged as well, with some socially oriented versions of Christianity reaching to the urban black population (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7560). Moves for “black power,” which Gonzalez interprets as gaining rights, not mastery, became common, sometimes sparking riots (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7581).

The feminist movement also flourished during this time period. Often this included calls for ordination of women in churches, as well as critiques of theology written by males (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7597).

Theological fragmentation and an increasing concern with social involvement on one hand, liturgy on the other hand, reshaped Protestantism in the United States (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7626). A wave of interest in the charismatic movement and a concurrent revolution in communications and broadcasting led to the development of powerful and large churches urging either moral or social activism or both (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7641).
The Islamic attacks on the United States in September of 2001 began a new social period (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7675). Moves for revenge through military invasions into Afghanistan and Iraq led to a unified opposition to terrorism and divided opinions about the best respons (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7675). A recession beginning in 2008 moved the country more toward a defensive posture, as well as an attitude that those perceived as outsiders were a threat (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7689). Churches responded with attempts to care for the needy. Gonzalez suggests that the society and media were no longer interested in hearing what churches might say. The nation was moving away from Christianity.

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Protestants in Europe - Standing Firm?

4/17/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 4/17/17

Christianity went through several serious times of crisis in Europe during the 20th century. The World Wars, the rise of Communism, the increasing secularism, and the later fall of many of the Communist states all contributed to a complicated relationship between Church and State. The Church adjusted its views toward social activism and charity many times. Gonzalez takes us on an interesting walk through the 20th century in Europe.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 35, “Crisis at the Center: Protestantism in Europe” Loc. 7133-7385.

The World Wars in the first half of the 20th century had a very strong effect on Christianity in Europe, along with all of European society. Gonzalez points to the sense of disillusionment which arose from the certainty of missionary work and colonialism as a force for good (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7139). Protestant efforts to avoid the wars or work reconciliation had failed. Gonzalez discusses Karl Barth (1886-1965) as giving the “most significant theological response” of the time (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7161). Disillusioned by the failure of liberal social programs, Barth turned to biblical exposition, writing a groundbreaking Commentary on Romans in 1916 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7177). The transcendence of God and the eschatological nature of Christ’s kingdom were primary concepts in his writing. Over the next two decades he refined his views and concluded that the Bible both showed questions to ask and gave sound answers to those questions (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7216). Barth’s views became foundational to resisting Nazi ideas of human perfectibility (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7238).

While Barth was continuing his work in Switzerland, Bonhoeffer used similar ideas to resist Hitler’s government, eventually being imprisoned and serving as a chaplain to prisoners and guards in a concentration camp (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7261).

After World War II Soviet control was established throughout much of Eastern and central Europe (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7276). Christianity was seen as the enemy of the Communist rule, causing conflict. On some fronts there were attempts to reconcile Christianity with the social plans of communism, while some drew sharp distinctions (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7295). The idea of an eschatological hope as the foundation of Christianity became popular (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7314).

Gonzalez notes that secularization increased in the West after World War II, with very small minorities retaining involvement in Christianity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7320). Liberal theological moves to “demythologize” the Christian faith may have contributed to this trend (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7329).

By the end of the 20th century Gonzalez sees a growing attitude that the form of Modernity found in the Enlightenment was becoming obsolete (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7344). The fall of communism opened the door to new types of relationships among Christians and between Church and State. Churches emerged from oppression with surprising strength (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7374). Yet secularism was widely accepted among the populations of Europe.

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Roman Catholicism's 20th Century Challenges

4/10/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 4/10/17

Roman Catholicism has, at best, had an uneasy time of it in the 20th century. With a worldwide membership and a seat of governance in Rome, the influence of unrest and the World Wars had a profound influence. The Vatican II reforms sparked considerable controversy. Gonzalez gives us a brief summary of the developments of this world-wide church body.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 34, “Roman Catholic Christianity” Loc. 6876-7132.

In this chapter Gonzalez considers the developments in Catholicism since approximately World War II, noting tension between those who wished to continue in the defensiveness of the Council of Trent and those who wished more openness to the challenges in the modern world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6889). Pope John XXIII (1958-1963) showed more communication with the modern political and economic world than many (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6896). He called for a council in which he would seek advice from the other bishops (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6904). Pope John welcomed a broad spectrum of bishops to the Second Vatican Council, assembled in 1962 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6919). There were numerous changes to the liturgy approved by the end of the council, which was concluded by the next pope, Paul VI (1963-1978) (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6933). While the pope did continue to assert his primacy in general there was more openness to local differences and non-centralized decision making (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6962). Paul VI continued to resist rapid change within the Church, yet was unable to prevent schismatic action between conservative and progressive factions (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6984).

After Paul VI died in 1979 he was followed very briefly by John Paul I then John Paul II, from Poland (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6902). John Paul II saw the fall of the Soviet Union and massive changes in the relationship between church and state (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6999). John Paul II sought reconciliation among different branches of Christianity. He also dealt with the beginning of a sexual abuse scandal (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6999). The requests for women’s ordination also became prominent during his tenure (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7006). In all this, John Paul II held a conservative position.

John Paul II was succeeded in 2005 by Benedict XVI, a German cardinal (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7014). Benedict XVI was a staunch conservative but was open to other positions in some matters, at least on a limited basis.

During this time period, the scientific interpretation of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, who sought to view scientific progress through a theological lens, was significant (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7029). Attempts to explain the world as evolutionary in nature but culminating in Christ were popular. Other scholars, such as Henri de Lubac and Jean Danielou sought scholarly responses to early Christian writings (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7065). Karl Rahner wrote theology extensively, trying to harmonize tradition and modernity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7098). This harmonization, as opposed to an articulation of just a churchly view, was a departure from hundreds of years of thought (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 7098).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Missionaries? Oppressors? Helpers?

4/3/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 4/3/17

Missionary activity in the 19th century and following has been controversial, to say the least. Is it a form of colonialism? Is it political? Is it oppressive? Is it liberating? Gonzalez surveys missionary activity in many parts of the world.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 33, “Geographic Expansion” Loc. 6525-6875.

Western Christians have had mixed opinions about colonialism. Gonzalez concludes that many wished their colonial efforts to bring the benefits they found both in Western civilization and in Christianity to the rest of the world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6530). Of course, there were negative effects as well, which may well have led to the 20th century anticolonial reactions in much of the world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6539). Gonzalez is quick to note that missionary activity and colonialism did not normally have the same goals and often worked against one another (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6546). In the 19th century, missionary societies sprang up apart from governmental or even denominational support (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6566). These organizations were often able to cross cultural and theological lines to cooperate.

Asia, after the British East India Company was established, attracted the interest of William Carey, who went to Calcutta in 1793 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6618). He could not settle there due to a ban of missionaries imposed by the British East India Company, but carried on successful work with native language Bibles and protection of widows (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6625). By 1813, the Company lifted its ban. many other missionaries began work in India (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6631). Southeast Asia was also attractive, with Adoniram Judson working in Burma (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6646). Work in China was largely restricted by isolationist governmental policies until British domination of Hong Kong in the 1840s (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6661). In the 1850s Hudson Taylor was able to go to China (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6676). His organization sought to avoid the fragmentation of worldwide Protestantism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6683). Japan was quick to adopt Western economic models in the 1860s. They also tended to welcome Protestant missionaries as they sought to broaden their influence in the region (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6697). Other areas also had missionary activity. Australia and New Zealand and the smaller islands were influenced by Christianity along with Western culture in the late 1800s (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6733).

Islam was a force at this time in northern Africa (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6733). In the early 20th century, with Islam in retreat, colonialism and missionary activity increased in Africa. Because there were pockets of Christianity which had survived since the early centuries, relationships with new missionaries were a challenge (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6741). Gonzalez details the partition of Africa in brief, observing that religious majorities in the colonial nations had a strong influence on the type of missionary activity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6763). The most famous missionary to Africa was probably David Livingstone, also a physician, who left detailed records (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6769).

As nations in Latin America gained independence they saw a great deal of immigration and the founding of many churches (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6782). Governments often allowed freedom of religion so as to encourage people with religious principles to come (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6797). Much of the missionary activity in Latin America was Protestant, which created tension with the existing, mostly Roman Catholic, people (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6819). Much missionary activity turned toward unreached and disadvantaged people.

Gonzalez sees a growing ecumenical movement sparked by the missionary activity of the 18th-20th centuries (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6834). There was a growing tolerance of doctrinal differences and a sense of universal mission through the whole world. Especially in missionary activity, cooperation seemed sensible (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6841). The 20th century saw numerous international conferences on world mission, reaching across denominational lines (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6849).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Roman Catholic Responses to Modernity

3/27/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 3/27/17

Some question whether the Roman Catholic Church ever changes. Some think it never changes. Some seem to think it is going to reflect society as a whole, if it can ever figure out what the whole society of the world would look like. Gonzalez analyzes the historical responses to the French Revolution, modernity, and the later move into the period of the World Wars.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 32, “Catholicism in the Face of Modernity” Loc. 6252-6524.

As modernity increased in the 18th-19th centuries, Gonzalez notes the Catholic response was consistent in opposition to such revolutions. Many aspects of the French Revolution were specifically intended to weaken the papacy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6265). The papacy responded with purposeful theological conservatism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6273). During the long reign of Pius IX (1846-1878) the pope was declared infallible, while at the same time losing political power, even being exiled from Rome in 1849 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6287). By 1870 the Church had very little political power and was sovereign only over a small area in Italy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6295). Yet Pius IX asserted Mary’s Immaculate Conception in 1854, also claiming the ability to work without a council (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6302). He further listed many areas in which Catholics would reject a broader society. The First Vatican Council further affirmed papal infallibility (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6343). Gonzalez notes that since the assertion in 1854, the only other assertion of authority was in 1950, when Pius XII affirmed Mary’s assumption into heaven (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6351).

After Pius IX, Leo XII (tenure 1878-1903) pursued a policy in which Catholics were urged to withdraw from political involvement (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6366). At the same time, laws which protect the rights of the poor are appropriate. It is right to defend those who are defenseless (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6381).

After Leo XII, Pius X took a much more conservative tack, a move which Gonzalez considers to have alienated many (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6412). In World War I Benedict XV continued the same policies. He was succeeded by Pius XI (1922-1939), who attempted to portray Christian piety as a matter of personal devotio. He greatly increased missionary activity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6428). The rise of Nazism and Fascism caused difficulties as the Pope could not reliably approve any of the parties in the rising conflict (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6443). Pius XII (1939-1958) actively tried to overthrow Hitler, though remained neutral in World War II (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6457). His policies tended to assert Church authority even in political conflicts. Pius XII finally made some alliances with the Fascist regime of Franco in Spain by 1953 He also made significant moves toward theological conservatism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6495). Even in that environment Gonzalez notes his work set the stage for Vatican II, the spread of churches outside Europe, and strengthening of areas which were former colonies of European powers (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6502).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

19th Century Philosophical Christianities

3/20/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 3/20/17

Protestantism in the 19th century was profoundly influenced by the rise of several prominent schools of philosophy in the West. We have previously considered the interaction of the Christian faith with industrialization and urbanization. The new philosophies of the 19th century continued to add to the intricacy and often confusion of the playing field.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 31, “Protestant Theology” Loc. 6022-6251.

The 18th century saw theological debate in which Catholics and Protestants tended to do theology in different ways (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6029). Gonzalez discusses the distinctive ways Protestants engaged in theological reflection. He considers the developments within Protestantism to be related to the Industrial Revolution and its move toward an individualistic, urbanized, and technologically oriented society (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6037). In an effort to care for the needs created in society by these developments, some groups of Christians made greater efforts at ministry to the poor and needy, as well as filling social roles once held by extended family (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6059). Theology changed in its process due to the changing types of cultural analyses in the world, particularly with the work of persons such as Marx and Freud (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6082).

Building on Kant’s view of religion as an ethical matter rather than an intellectual one, Scheiermacher “gave up the attempt to base religion on reason, be it pure or practical” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6090). Religion, rather, was based on feeling (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6105). Theology becomes the practice of exploring feelings of dependence on God and of a relationship to the world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6114).

G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1830) also built on Kant, but in a different direction (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6129). He affirmed that reason itself was the only true reality. Hegel’s reasoning process itself examined an idea with a goal of finding a different, superior idea. Hegel further affirmed a universal reason which he would refer to as “the Spirit” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6146). History would then be seen as the progressive development of the Spirit’s ideas. Christianity was the culmination of religion, being the apex of divine ideas b6154). However, Christianity is not to be bound by any dogmatic systems (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6162).

Soren Kirkegaard (1813-1855) built on Kant in a third direction (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6177). Rather than building a philosophy on pure reason or on a sense of dependence, Kirkegaard saw the perfection of Christianity in faith in the God revealed in Scripture (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6177). this is not an easy answer. On the contrary, it requires forceful self-denial. We must learn not to depend on our own reason or feelings but on revealed truth. Christianity is portrayed as central to a person’s existence. It is not viewed as easy, but as very real (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6200). Kirkegaard viewed the full-bodied existence as something which would be lived in, counter to Hegel, who saw it as something foreign.

In the world of academia, the biblical and theological scholars in Tubingen, particularly F.C. Baur, sought to find the thesis, antithesis, and a new synthesis in the New Testament (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6216). Meanwhile, conflict arose between the more academic versions of Christianity and the more traditional groups. Analysis of historical developments likewise saw either an abandonment of the historic faith or a development and growth of the faith (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6224). The philosophical developments, especially those of Hegel, led to a view of reason as opposed to faith, also opposed to reality (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6232). Scholars also began a search for “the historical Jesus,” a true person behind the alleged later accretions of doctrinal writings (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6240). All these developments, taken together, create a very busy and fertile century.

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Eastern European Christianity

3/13/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 3/13/17

Christians in Eastern Europe have dealt with very hostile conditions, especially since the Islamic expansions of the 1400s. This intensified as the 19th century saw the breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and the early 20th century saw the rise of Communism. Gonzalez explores the history of Christianity in this war-torn part of the world. When everything seemed to be darkest, what kept the Christian faith alive?

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 30, “A Shifting Landscape: Eastern Christianity” Loc. 5842-6021.

Eastern Christianity has faced hostile state governments since the 1400s when the Turks took Constantinople (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5848). Within the Byzantine Empire freedom of Christianity was limited. The Emperor ruled over the Church, as opposed to situations in the West where the Pope had authority over the Emperor. In 1453, with the fall of Constantinople, there was an initial period of relative freedom for the Church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5856). “For several centuries, theological activity in the Greek-speaking church was dominated by Western influences and reactions against it. The issues debated in the West during the Protestant Reformation were also discussed in the Greek-speaking church” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5863). By the 19th century, discussion of political acceptance of Western philosophy and its influence on theology became prominent (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5870). As the Ottoman Empire broke down in the later 19th century, the conflict between nationalism and the non-national nature of the Church became important (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5878). Through times of struggle the liturgy was found to bring hope and to pass Christianity to future generations (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5885).

Russia, which had always viewed Constantinople with suspicion, considered the fall of Constantinople to transfer true Christianity to Moscow (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5892). Russia’s accretion of leadership and doctrine prevented reunification with Greek Christianity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5900). Under Czar Peter the Great (1689-1725) Russia opened itself to a variety of Western influences. This included Catholic and Protestant doctrines (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5908). In the 19th century Romantic philosophy and theology briefly gained power, then receded as a nationalist movement arose (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5915). This debate largely ended with the Marxism of the Russian Revolution. In the 1920s religious teaching in schools and seminaries was ended, though only until 1943 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5923). The continued use of the liturgy was successful at passing Christianity on from one generation to another.
Orthodoxy in other parts of the world is regularly an indigenous movement, celebrating liturgy in the local language (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5931). Additionally, there are branches of the Eastern Church which did not remain part of Orthodoxy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5938). Gonzalez observes that these groups, though they have differences with the Orthodox Church, are readily recognized as Christian. These groups have normally not wished to engage in theology discussion with the West, though they have done so more recently (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5969). Gonzalez finally notes that the fall of the Soviet Union brought greater freedom to Christians.

Despite over eighty years of restrictions the Church emerged with remarkable strength (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5974). Seminaries and Universities were quickly opened and the Church reasserted its role in society (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5982). Conflicts between the Russian Orthodox Church and other bodies emerged, sometimes even provoking war. The liturgy and message of Orthodoxy spread rapidly (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 6010).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Latin America - A Tale of Two or More Governments

3/6/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 3/6/17

As colonialism in Latin America declined, church and government readjusted in a rather quick and often chaotic manner. The interactions between local governments and international Church organizations were necessarily challenging. Where do we really find stability after all is said and done?

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 29, “A Shifting Landscape: Latin America” Loc. 5680-5841.

In the 19th century with the fall of Spanish and Portuguese colonialism in Latin America, governmental restructuring was unavoidable (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5702). Former colonies, which had essentially governed themselves for years, established their own structures. Large Latin American countries fragmented into multiple smaller countries (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5709). Gonzalez gives a number of examples of the reshuffling after the Napoleonic Wars. As in Europe, Latin America saw economic growth as resources were accessed and exported (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5741).

Latin America’s ideological debate was between landed, rural conservatives and more urban liberals (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5748). Both groups were primarily wealthy. Neither was open to the lower classes becoming wealthy or powerful. This ultimately led to revolution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5756).

The Church in Latin America had been governed by colonial powers (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5756). The bishops were mostly supportive of the Royal oversight (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5763). Because of the change in government the Catholic Church had to recognize each as a rightful nation and make sure bishops were duly appointed (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5771). The lack of bishops and priests resulted in a lower level of catechesis and an increase of syncretistic beliefs and practices (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5787). Gonzalez identifies a growing anti-Catholic mood among liberals in the later 19th century (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5799). Following Auguste Comte, many considered a scientific age based on testable and measurable outcomes to be the pinnacle of society (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5806). States thus became less supportive of the Church in general. While the population remained involved in the Church, involvement tended to be superficial.

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

The French Revolution and Christianity

2/27/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 2/27/17

What influence did the French Revolution and Napoleon have on Christianity in Europe? Quite a large impact! It’s always interesting to me to see how some 200 years later many of the same philosophies are influencing the world I live in.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 28, “A Shifting Landscape: Western Europe” Loc. 5454-5679.

The end of the 18th century was full of cultural changes in Europe. Gonzalez considers the most important to be associated with the French Revolution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5459). The French Revolution was provoked, at least in part, by inequality in governmental representation. During the conflict there were economic difficulties resulting in poverty and hunger. This led to riots (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5476). In 1789 a new governing assembly asserted power and reorganized the government, including governance of religion (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5483). The assembly was divided between those who wished to reform the church and those who thought Christianity was outmoded and should be ended (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5490). The more radical group gained more power as the revolution continued. Clergy were finally required to swear allegiance to the Civil Constitution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5505). Only those who agreed would be supported by the government. Others were forced to seek support from their followers. They also found themselves under suspicion of participation in the counterrevolution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5512).

Between 1790 and 1815 the French conflict became more radical. As the end of the Napoleonic Wars came in 1815 the monarchy was ended and broader conflict broke out (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5520). The new revolutionary leaders wished science to replace religion. Official observances of Reason began, with restructuring of the calendar and appointment of new saints, including “Jesus, Socrates, Marcus Aurelius, and Rousseau (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5535). There was widespread execution of priests, both Catholic and Protestant.

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars the national governments and even the boundaries in Europe were revised (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5565). Various groups sought to form coalitions which would create national unity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5573). Economic approaches which avoided governmental involvement grew increasingly popular and resulted in economic growth (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5580). Gonzalez illustrates widespread changes throughout Europe for much of the 19th century.

Gonzalez observes that the greatest changes in Europe in the 19th century had to do with the increasing distance between church and state (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5617). Churches were increasingly selected by choice and supported by offerings (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5624).
Gonzalez closes the chapter by observing the same phenomena in Britain as in the rest of Europe. Reform movements served to diversify the Church and move it away from governmental control (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5639).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

18th and 19th Century Roots of Modern North American Religion

2/20/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 2/20/17

Immigration, nationalism, and the rejection of colonial powers led to increasing denominationalism and fragmentation in the landscape of Christianity in the 18th-19th centuries in North America. Gonzalez attempts to follow some of the threads which inform many modern day expressions of Christianity.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 27, “A Shifting Landscape: The United States” Loc. 4954-5453.

After a period of relative autonomy, in the later part of the eighteenth century, Britain attempted to exercise more authority in North America (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4960). This was not uniformly welcomed. The increasing tensions eventually led to armed conflict. The war for American independence grew out of these conflicts (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4975). The religious landscape in North America was profoundly changed by these events, as people tended to leave historic and dogmatic Christianity behind.

Gonzalez sees this movement particularly in the Unitarian groups who rejected the Trinity, and in Universalists, who confessed that everyone would be saved (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4982). The two groups tended to join together, also often in alliance with Transcendental and other rationalist philosophical groups (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4990).

The relationship of North American churches to Anglicanism was also a serious issue (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4996). Because of the Anglican roots of much of the religious landscape, the war for independence caused an uneasy situation. Eventually, a form of Methodism governed in America arose. Baptist churches, locally governed, rose up as well (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5003). The term “denomination” is indicative of this pluralistic attitude. The churches would accept each other as Christian, but as a variety of types of Christians (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5010). Denominations could arise as groups of Christians sorted themselves according to a variety of doctrinal or political views.

Waves of immigration in the 18th and 19th centuries had a strong influence on the growth of denominations. Gonzalez notes the wide variety of people from different backgrounds tended to use their Christian experience as an important means of preserving a cultural identity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5040). At the same time, social and religious groups could also arise in opposition to one another (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5047). Especially in the 19th century a variety of religious communal experiments were undertaken, seeking to form a village or region which would be dedicated to a certain group of beliefs (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5062). Gonzalez discusses the Shakers in some detail.

Gonzalez also discusses the rise of the Second Great Awakening near the end of the 18th century (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5076). In this movement there was a strong emphasis on personal belief. Bible and missions societies were founded frequently as people desired to bring the Christian faith to others (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5085). In this time period, expansion to the west was spurred on by a missionary zeal. Revival meetings and opportunities to gamble and carouse joined together on the frontier (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5098). In these camp meetings the preaching would often be very simple, and the preacher would have little training. The Methodists and Baptists, who could approve lay preachers quickly, were at the forefront of religious developments on the frontier (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5113). On the frontier, Gonzalez affirms that ethnic boundaries were more likely to break down (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5120).
Gonzalez sees a strong sense of divine approval among the settlers in North America (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5120). This naturally led to a desire to subdue the entire continent. In 1845 the term “Manifest Destiny” was coined to urge occupation of all territory west of the United States territory to the Pacific Ocean (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5135). This resulted in war not only between Texas and Mexico, but also conflicts between Protestant and Catholic and between slave holding people (Texas) and non-slave people (Mexico). Primarily due to superiority in weapons, the Texan army overcame the Mexicans, creating an independent Republic of Texas (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5152). Texas was later made a state by congressional resolution. The forces of the United States then invaded to the west, drawing fire from Mexico, a declaration of war, and the capture of a great deal of territory from Mexico (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5173).

Gonzalez suggests that the religious landscape was increasingly polarized between Protestant and Catholic in this conflict (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5180). The issue of slavery was also increasingly divisive. Among some denominations slavery was banned, while others did not reject it (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5203). Because of a strong abolitionist movement in the North, those who were dependent on slave labor in the South frequently defended slavery as a biblical and salutary institution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5211). This resulted in a variety of denominational splits which remain to the present. After the War of 1861 there were continued conflicts in different segments of the population, including racial polarization (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5228). Churches also tended to form separate black and white denominations (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5233). Gonzalez specifically points out that this was an issue both in the North and the South (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5246).

Between the War of 1861 and World War I, tensions between races grew, as did a strong anti-intellectual bias in the South (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5253). Meanwhile, Christian thinkers were promoting the idea of a Christian nation which would be responsible for creating true civilization (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5270). This led to formation of more Christian mission and social organizations. The Sunday school was developed and the religious camp meeting was refashioned to fit the needs of an urbanized society (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5277). Though Gonzalez does not mention the connection, this appears much like a continuation of the methods of the Second Great Awakening, now becoming a fixture of the established church. This reconfiguration included female preachers (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5291). Gonzalez ties this directly to the rise of the later feminist movement (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5312). He also notes the rise, especially in the early 20th century, of the neopentecostal movement (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5312). This movement became dominant in American Christianity and in much of the global landscape (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5326). Another new denomination formed after the War of 1861 is the Seventh Day Adventists. This group has a vivid hope of the second coming of Christ and an expectation that modern prophets and attention to the Jewish law will guide affairs until the coming of the Lord (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5326).

Gonzalez again notes the continuing intellectual challenges to Christian orthodoxy in this time period. Theological liberalism raised doubts about the reliability of Scripture (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5340). On the other end of the spectrum, by about 1846, there was a strong move to defend the fundamental tenets of Christianity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5362). Again, fundamentalism and liberalism tended to divide the country into South and North respectively. Fundamentalism developed schemes for interpreting the Bible which were not necessarily any more orthodox than the ideas of liberalism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5370). From the fundamentalist the idea of dispensationalism could require God to change over time. From liberalism the social gospel would equate societal progress with redemption (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5377). Both movements were at high points in the early 20th century.

Gonzalez also discusses the rise of various new religions in the 19th century. In 1830 Joseph Smith published the Book of Mormon, allegedly revealed to him on sacred golden tablets which he translated with angelic help (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5393). This new religion claimed to be a continuation of Christianity as Christianity was a continuation of Judaism. Eventually the bulk of Mormons settled in Utah, from where they have worked with missionary zeal.
The Jehovah’s Witnesses sought secret knowledge and revelation, predicting the end of the world and rejecting the Trinity. Since the world did not end in 1914 they have reorganized and worked as missionaries (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5415).

Christian Science holds that the material world is largely an illusion (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5423). The founder, Mary Baker Eddy, considered illness to be an illusion. She founded a college for practitioners of Christian Science in 1879. The organization rejects any variance in doctrines, prescribing specific readings from the Bible and Eddy’s writings (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 5437).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

The Gordian Knot of Western Christianity

2/13/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 2/13/17

There’s a good deal of confusion in Western Christianity. It’s become intertwined with political and economic power, as well as with the intellectual developments of the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. This results in a very complicated set of interactions.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 26, “An Age beyond Christendom” Loc. 4658-4953.

Gonzalez notes that in the late 18th and early 19th century a new type of aristocracy was arising in the West, based on wealth rather than family (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4664). The lower classes tended to become dissatisfied, which resulted in various revolutions (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4671). During this time Christianity spread geographically as well, reaching all parts of the world, at least to some extent (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4678). Nations, aided in part by the Industrial Revolution, changed the process of colonialism to focus on economic power (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4692). European colonial powers increasingly sought sources of raw materials in areas where they could find political footholds (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4715). Modern military forces were a significant tool through the 19th century as well (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4715).

“Behind this new order stood an even deeper intellectual revolution…” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4722) which Gonzalez identifies as a new emphasis on observational experimentation. The explosion of technology led to tremendous changes in manufacturing and distribution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4729). In the 18th and 19th centuries there were also expectations that the Gospel would take root all over the world, creating a largely Christian world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4751).

Gonzalez considers that the great wars of the 20th century were provoked by a continued desire for expansion of territory and power in a world with little space for uncontested expansion (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4758). Especially in Russia, church and state were pitted against each other in 1917 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4772). As both Communism and Fascism grew in various areas, Christianity was viewed as a threat to government (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4801). By 1939 the tension erupted into a second World War (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4817).

With the destruction in the World Wars, Gonzalez sees the death of Western optimism about Christianity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4824). Nations which had once been vital in the spread of the Gospel had now caused tremendous amounts of death and destruction. A strong climate of anticolonialism grew up rapidly, rejecting Western culture as well as intrusive government (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4852). The dispute often came to be seen as one between white and non-white people (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4860).

As globalization increased the Western world found that people from former colonies sought out residency and work in the countries which had previously governed them (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4875). The Church, as an international organization which cut across all sorts of barriers, was very important in the search for social, economic, and political balance (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4889). This work evidenced itself in both theological conservatism and progressivism, retreat and advance (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4896). Secularism and religion fought for dominance. Sects arose, along with various forms of self-mediated religious faith (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4910).
In this portion of the book, Gonzalez will consider the movements, both theological and geographical, by which Christianity separated from its traditional home in Western civilization (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4932).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

British Colonialism and American Christianity

2/6/2017

Mondays are for Church History - 2/6/17

Colonialism, good, bad, or indifferent, doubtlessly has had a huge influence on history and culture throughout the world. British colonialism, with its complicated patterns of post-Reformation religious differences, painted quite the picture, especially in North America.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 25, “The Thirteen Colonies” Loc. 4267-4557.

Gonzalez, as do many, compares the Spanish colonialism of the 17th century with the British moves in the 18th century. The comparisons and contrasts are very complicated (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4280). The British colonies, after finding no source of immediate wealth, turned to agricultural exports (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4288). Except in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island, the climate of religious freedom was not remarkable. The capture of land from relatively nomadic peoples resulted in as much displacement and death as would an invasion of an area of permanent towns (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4295).

After two failed attempts at settlement in Virginia in the 1580s, a permanent settlement was created at Jamestown in 1607 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4302). The Jamestown settlement was not aligned with Puritanism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4318). The Church of England took little action to evangelize slaves held in Virginia (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4326). Allegiance to the Anglican Church was primarily among the growing aristocracy, while others tended toward the dissident sects (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4333). Much the same pattern was found in the Carolinas and Georgia (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4350).

New England saw a vibrant Puritan influence (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4355). The Mayflower settlers, followed by the Massachusetts Bay Company settlers, were Puritans, though some were more loyal to the Church of England than others (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4371). Gonzalez describes several instances of English control being rather remote, such that the colonies could largely govern themselves (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4378). The challenges inherent in a Christian community were of great importance, particularly in the question of the efficacy of baptism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4385). Gonzalez discusses the Salem witch trials of 1692 briefly, concluding that the limited role of women in society may have been a significant root problem behind the accusations of witchcraft (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4408). Along with evangelism of the native populations, many of the Indians were concerned about invasive settlement practices. This led to warfare in the late 1600s (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4422).

Out of a desire for religious freedom and governmental non-interference in religion, Roger Williams and others left Massachusetts, eventually settling in Rhode Island (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4438). The religious pluralism tended in some situations to individualistic and non-Christian interpretations of various religious beliefs (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4453). This was especially prevalent among Baptists.

Maryland was a primarily Catholic colony from its founding in 1634, though the Catholics were never in the majority. Protestants eventually took control (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4476). The Mid-Atlantic colonies tended to have some pluralism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4499).
Gonzalez observes the Great Awakening of the 18th century as a time of preaching which was often met with strongly emotional conversions (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4514). Significant preachers of this movement were Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. While the responses were often strongly emotive, the preaching was generally careful exposition of texts, conducted by orthodox Calvinists (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4529). The general fervor led many to a desire for confessors’ baptism. It also drove settlement and preaching to the West, as people desired to spread the Gospel. Finally, Gonzalez says, the movement tended to unify the American colonies, setting the stage for a move to one national government (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4542).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Pietism Grows

1/30/2017

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Pietism, along with Puritanism, has had a profound influence on American Christianity. What is it? Where did it come from? Are there both good and bad elements? What distinguishes Pietism from a biblical idea of piety - holy living?

Mondays are for Church History - 1/30/17

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 24, “The Pietist Option” Loc. 4025-4266.

In this chapter, Gonzalez traces not only the German pietism which sprang from the Thirty Years’ War, but also the movements of Zinzendorf and Wesley (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4032).
Philip Jakob Spener, 1635-1705, is generally recognized as “the father of Pietism” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4032). As a Lutheran pastor, Spener became concerned with developing personal faith in individuals. He did this through evaluation of expressions of personal faith (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4047). The life of holiness became central to his teaching, rather than being content with doctrines, including justification (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4062). Gonzalez suggests that a mark of Pietism is a desire that the Christian should show a remarkable sort of morality, as opposed to the code which the broader society would view as good (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4062). Pietism spread not only through Lutheranism but also into the Reformed movement (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4077). Gonzalez tracks its influence into the Great Awakening in North America, as well as the move to missionary activity in the 1700s (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4092).
Zinzendorf in the early 1700s was strongly influenced by Moravian pietists (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4108). He became deeply involved in sending missionaries all around the world. This move in turn had an impact on John Wesley and the Methodist movement (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4115).

John Wesley in 1735-36 was aboard a ship bound for Georgia along with some Moravians (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4123). Their confidence in God during a severe storm caused Wesley to question his trust in Jesus. Wesley was unsure of the stability of his faith in Christ (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4139). Gonzalez discusses Wesley’s life, which shows signs of considerable dedication to his Christian faith but in which he concluded that he did not have salvation and needed to preach about faith until he himself had it (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4154). This eventually came about in an experience which he could date, May 24, 1738 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4160). From that time Wesley worked tirelessly to encourage others to the same warm spirituality he had experienced (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4169). Wesley departed from the Calvinist faith to prefer Arminianism, thus dividing from some associates such as George Whitefield (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4184). Wesley sought to work within the Anglican church, but his Methodist groups became a movement of their own (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4199). Over time, they were accepting of lay preachers, including women (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4214). Wesley remained in conflict with the Anglican church, who viewed him as divisive and disorderly (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4222). By 1784 Wesley was ordaining pastors. By 1787 the Methodist church was recognized as its own organization (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4230). In North America Methodism spread rapidly in the 1770s (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4252).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Spiritualism vs Christianity

1/23/2017

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Can personal opinion trump Scripture? What if that personal opinion came from some sort of vision? There’s something attractive about telling people that they should have a very lively faith and practice - especially if you can imply that you have it and they don’t. What happens with the growth of spiritualism in the 17th and 18th centuries?

Mondays are for Church History - 1/23/17

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 23, “The Spiritualist Option” Loc. 3862-4024.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, constant doctrinal debate may have led many, especially outside of the educated elite, to consider more purely spiritual religious views (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3868). Gonzalez considers three major leaders of this movement, rather than trying to trace a history of beliefs.

Jakob Boehme, 1575-1624, from a Lutheran family, a cobbler, had a series of visions which he recorded (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3883). The content of his visions caused him to be accused of heresy, though when on trial the magistrates did not understand the content of his visions (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3890). Though the content is not clear, the thrust is a move from cold dogma and empty liturgy to something more spiritually vivid (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3905).

George Fox, 1624-1691, at age 19 quit his occupation as a cobbler to dedicate himself to study Scripture and attend religious meetings (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3914). He concluded that much about Christianity was wrong. He exalted the “inner light” above all the guidance found in Christian observances (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3922). He denied depravity and sought illumination from within rather than any external means. Fox was so adamant in this view he would interrupt church services to proclaim it. Though he was regularly rejected, he gained many followers (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3930). The group became known as “Quakers” or “Friends” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3937). They did not allow structure in worship, preferring silence. People would speak, unprepared, as they felt led. Baptism and communion were rejected, as an interference with the spiritual (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3944). The sect spread through travel of its leaders, despite frequent imprisonment. Fox’s famous follower, William Penn, argued for religious toleration and obtained a land grant in North America (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3983). Settlers of various faiths, but mostly Quakers, went to Pennsylvania.

Emanuel Swedenborg, 1688-1772, was a well educated aristocrat from Sweden (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4006). After years as a scientist, he reported a vision. This was followed by his entering into extensive writing about how the reality we perceive is merely a reflection of divine truth, known only to the initiated few (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4006). In 1784, his followers created the Church of the New Jerusalem, which still survives (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4014).
Gonzalez observes that these movements were too abstract and otherworldly to catch on. The Quakers became strong primarily due to their social activism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 4021).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Rationalism Grows Up

1/16/2017

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. What if you have doubts about Christianity and those doubts persist? What are you going to do then? In the 18th and 19th centuries a variety of rationalist views were articulated. To a lesser or greater extent, all of them decided that Christianity as it had been believed and practiced for nearly two millennia was a dead end road. They sought to reinvent the world.

Mondays are for Church History - 1/16/17

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 22, “The Rationalist Option” Loc. 3654-3861.

Gonzalez identifies the growth of rationalism, reaching a peak in the 18th and 19th centuries, with a new dependence on Aristotle and his emphasis on sensory perception (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3660). Finding natural and reasonable patterns in some disciplines led to an expectation that all disciplines could be grasped using the same tools.

Rene Descartes, 1596-1650, considered mathematical reasoning key to understanding certainty (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3675). Because he was able to think, and to think of a God who was greater than he, Descartes was ready to accept both the existence of God and of himself, then sought to prove existence of other things (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3683). While many saw his philosophy as overly skeptical, some embraced his ideas and used them to proceed to discussion of the interaction between the material and the immaterial. The means of communication between the two realms was a matter of serious debate.

Meanwhile, in Britain, John Locke was working with how we learn from experience, which may occur within us, outside of us, or as God moves in ways we may not be able to comprehend (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3722). The role of judgment and probability was a challenge to Locke, who wished to avoid the idea of divine action as much as possible (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3730). While Locke considered Christianity probable, he viewed it simply as an articulation of natural laws which could be readily grasped by anybody (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3738).

Another alternative of the time, Deism, asserted a naturalist belief in some sort of a god in a world of natural consequences (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3754). Deism was fairly persuasive for those who had simply slipped into a lax version of Christianity. It did not deal well with the type of reasoning used by David Hume.

Hume (1711-1776) asserted that substance and cause-effect relationships may, in fact, not exist (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3770). The conclusions we make from appearances do not necessarily have adequate evidence.

In France, at the same time, Voltaire satirized various philosophies, deciding that life consists of a progressive act of discovery about ourselves and our world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3800). The purpose of government is for the benefit of the subjects. This view, held by Voltaire’s followers, led to the French Revolution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3808). Along with Voltaire, Rousseau advocated government existing for the sake of the people. Religion and other institutions were part of the problem, not the solution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3815).

Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804, reached a conclusion that ideas were data which could be categorized (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3831). Objective knowledge ceases to exist, as it only becomes knowledge after we have manipulated and categorized it (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3838). Religion may be a useful moral category, but there is no way of proving an absolute (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3846). Kant’s work left areas of debate open in such a way that much of modern and postmodern philosophy has built on his arguments.

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Reformed Orthodoxy

1/9/2017

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Lutherans were not the only Reformation in play during the 1600s. What was going on within Calvinism as it grew? The Calvinists were not entirely unified. How did they work out their positions?

Mondays are for Church History - 1/9/17

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 21 “Reformed Orthodoxy” Loc. 3536-3653.

Reformed orthodoxy was clearly defined in the 17th century in the Synod of Dort and the Westminster Assembly (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3542). In the early 1600s, Jacobus Arminius in Amsterdam, working to defend Calvin’s doctrine, concluded he disagreed about predestination (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3550). Arminius viewed predestination as a result of God’s foreknowledge of faith, while Calvin saw the predestination as what would create faith. After Arminius’ death in 1609, the debate carried on. Gonzalez reminds his readers that it was not between Calvin and Arminius, but their followers (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3558).

Politics became involved when Calvinists did not wish alliance with Spain but the wealthier Arminians did. The political battle became theological again with the 1610 identification of five Remonstrances, statements about the nature of predestination (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3572).
The articles state that God’s predestination was made before creation, that Jesus died for all, that all humans are in sin, that grace can be resisted, and that it is not clear whether Christians can fall away from the faith (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3572). A Synod assembled in Dort, 1618-19, discussed these ideas (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3587). The assembly rejected Arminianism and agreed on five statements. Election is unconditional, the atonement is only for the elect, human nature cannot choose to believe, grace is irresistible, and Christians cannot fall from grace (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3602). Arminianism was outlawed, though it was tolerated again by 1631.

Gonzalez next returns to the Westminster Confession, which is longer and more detailed than that of Dort (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3625). It is a classic articulation of Calvinist doctrine, with extensive explanation. Gonzalez observes that the strict systematization may have been difficult even for Calvin to agree with, as it spelled out so very many details of how life should be conducted, while Calvin found the Gospel to be liberating (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3648).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Lutheran Orthodoxy

1/2/2017

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. The Lutheran Reformation was not over in 1517. It had just begun. Other very important dates in the process include 1529, 1530, and especially 1580, when the publication of the Book of Concord would seem to lay the essential doctrines out clearly. The process was not all happiness and harmony. How did the second generation of Lutherans work out their doctrinal positions?

Mondays are for Church History - 1/2/17

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 20 “Lutheran Orthodoxy” Loc. 3404-3535.

Gonzalez now turns to the second generation of Lutherans (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3418). While some were supportive of Melanchthon, others thought he was too conciliatory. There were various negotiations made to attempt reconciliation with Rome. Most notably, the Augsburg Interim and the Leipzig Interim (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3432). Some Lutherans were unwilling to compromise while others were. Melanchthon’s position gave man more freedom of the will in salvation than the traditionalists were comfortable with (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3439). By 1577 the release of the Formula of Concord clarified a Lutheran position (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3447). Martin Chemnitz, responsible for much of the Formula of Concord, sought to reconcile the opposing positions (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3455). The Lutheran Orthodoxy articulated in this document was a detailed, scholastic view of theology (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3463).

Gonzalez points out that in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions, the scholastic works are very detailed and tend to follow Aristotelian patterns (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3470). They come from university communities, not from churches (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3477). This scholasticism always depends on the Scripture as uniquely inspired by God (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3485).
The teacher Georg Calixtus proposed that while all Scripture is inspired, not all of it is essential for the Christian (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3507). He determined importance of various ideas based on the conclusions of the first five centuries of Christianity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3514). The practice of gathering attractive ideas from various branches of Christianity rather than seeking one true doctrine is called syncretism and condemned as a heresy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3529).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

Fracture in Rome

12/26/2016

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Protestants often think of Roman Catholicism as a very static and uniform body of doctrine and practice. Nothing ever changes and the Church appears very united. Dissent is not tolerated. This picture does not reflect reality. We’ll step back into the view from Rome and see what happened around the 1700s.

Mondays are for Church History - 12/26/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 19 “Catholic Orthodoxy” Loc. 3260-3403.

Gonzalez notes that within the Roman Catholic church the proceedings of the Council of Trent were not wholly received. Some considered it to reform in ways they thought inappropriate, while some thought the reaction against Protestantism eroded grace (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3266). A centralized papal authority made many in European courts uneasy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3273). Various moves to shift power into an assembly of bishops or councils continued. In France, these movements continued until the French Revolution (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3296).
The Jesuit society, originally founded as a papal army, was dissolved in 1773 after some years of being expelled from different nations (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3309).

Because of fears that Trent’s opposition to Protestant views could depart from Augustine’s teachings about grace, debates arose about grace and about predestination (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3317). In several instances, teachers interpreted Augustine in ways which were similar to Calvin, so were condemned (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3325). A zealous movement, Jansenism, arose after 1640 with such claims of grace and predestination. This became popular in France, but was banned because of its sectarian tendencies (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3332).

Another important move was quietism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3361). In this movement, the believer was to be utterly passive and be assumed into God. This led to a strongly mystical movement (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3377).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

The Puritan Revolution

12/19/2016

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. The Puritans in England are frequently misunderstood. There are numerous important developments within the world of Christianity as well as in the political landscape of Europe and the Americas which would look vastly different without the influence of this energetic group of people. What were their concerns? How did they deal with their desire to be biblically pure?

Mondays are for Church History - 12/19/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 18 “The Puritan Revolution” Loc. 2970-3259.

Gonzalez now looks back to Britain and considers the rise of the Puritans (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2970). In 1603 James VI of Scotland also became James I of England. his moves to unite Scotland and England sparked controversy including among Protestants who desired a more radical reformation (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2983). These groups were often called Puritans due to their desire to purify the Church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2991). There was a move away from high liturgy and written prayers, as well as the leadership of bishops (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2998). From this movement Gonzalez finds the rise of Baptists, who, after flight to Amsterdam, would insist on adult baptism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3014). This group eventually split into Calvinists and Arminians (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3020).

During this time the English move was to a more traditional liturgy, which the Puritans feared would return to Rome (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3022). James desired an absolute monarchy in which the church would support the authority of the king (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3029). He did tolerate Catholics and Presbyterians, but insisted on episcopal government, which could strengthen the monarchy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3037).

In 1604, the question of an episcopal government became a dividing issue in Parliament, dividing Puritans from the Church of England, eventually leading to a civil war.
James tried to rule without Parliament but did find he needed to convene it occasionally for tax purposes in 1614, 1621, and 1624, when he dissolved parliament. He died shortly afterward (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3081).

After James, Charles I gave concessions to Catholics and further alienated Parliament (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3089). In 1633, the elevation of William Laud as archbishop of Canterbury was followed by moves against the Puritans. This, in turn, led to war(Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3111). After a dissolution of Parliament in 1640, several longer parliaments were assembled (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3118). This assembly, before agreeing to vote on matters of funding, took measures against enemies of Puritanism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3126). “In May 1641, it passed a law establishing that the assembly could not be dissolved by the king without its own agreement” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3133). Parliament then began removing members who would support the king or oppose Puritans. Both the king and Parliament raised armies (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3154). To solidify Puritan support and unite with the Scots, Parliament gathered the Westminster Assembly, intent on creating a unified confession (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3170). Oliver Cromwell recruited a cavalry force which overcame the king’s army, singing psalms as they entered battle (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3184). The king was arrested, the Puritan Parliament imposed laws to protect their distinctives, and the Puritans and Independents continued to have conflicts among themselves (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3191). In 1646 the army, acting on its own authority, attempted to assert rule. King Charles escaped and gained support of the Scots. The army captured the king and began a purge of Parliament (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3198). After the execution of Charles, Scotland recognized his son, Charles II, as ruler. Ireland rebelled. The Puritans splintered (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3205). Cromwell took hold of government and sought some measure of stability and tolerant but firm reform (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3221).

After Cromwell’s death in 1658, Parliament recalled Charles II (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3229). By the end of the century religious toleration was official, though the Book of Common Prayer was the norm (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3237). Scotland became strongly Presbyterian. Charles II on his deathbed, along with his brother James II in his reign, sought to restore Catholicism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3244). After three years William of Orange and Mary, daughter of James, took the throne, showing general tolerance of both Catholics and Puritans (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 3252).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

The Church of the Desert - in France

12/12/2016

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Guerilla Christianity - undercover movements, and political intrigue - France has it all.

Mondays are for Church History - 12/12/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 17 “The Church of the Desert” Loc. 2858-2969.

Gonzalez turns his attention here to developments in France in the 17th century (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2864). After the death of Henry IV in 1610 his son, Louis XIII, age 8, was under the leadership of his mother, who made alliances which were not favorable to Protestants. By 1622 Louis’ advisor, Cardinal Richelieu, pursued religious alliances based on convenience (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2878). While he would support Protestant insurrections in other places, he moved to destroy the Hugenots in France. Gonzalez notes that the political power held by the Protestants seems to have been the motivator, not their religious life (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2893). After Richelieu died in 1642 and Louis XIV, age 5, took the throne the next year, the new regent, Cardinal Mazarin, continued the same policies (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2900). After Mazarin’s death, Louis XIV asserted his own primacy, even over the papacy in his lands (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2900). He also worked forcefully to stop Protestantism and other dissident moves (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2908).

This included a 1684 use of an army to enforce conversion of Protestants (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2915). In 1685 Protestantism was outlawed in France, resulting in a mass exodus and secret worship meetings (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2922). There were “desert” societies in which Huguenots would consider themselves as outcasts. Visionaries expected the end of the world (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2930). Some gathered in arms to fight against royal forces, resulting in the destruction of hundreds of villages (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2937).

Another, more conservative Calvinist group also arose, intent on biblical exposition rather than visions of the end (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2945). By 1726 this group was training pastors in Lausanne, Switzerland (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2952). The Reformed Church took solid root in France, finally being tolerated in 1787 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2959).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

The Thirty Years' War

12/5/2016

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Warfare broke out between various groups of Christians in the 1600s. Was this the end of Christianity? When, if at any time, is it appropriate for Christians to engage in warfare, particularly against other people who claim Christianity?

Mondays are for Church History - 12/5/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 16 “The Thirty Years’ War” Loc. 2748-2857.

The Peace of Augsburg, which allowed for some level of peace between Catholic and Lutheran territories, did not last for long. By 1608 there were moves to convert people by force (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2769). Events between Bohemian Protestants and their Catholic king led to the Thirty Years’ War (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2776). During this war, Gonzalez affirms, Bohemian population was reduced by about 80% (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2784). There were numerous international interactions between the Catholic rulers and Protestants (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2791). On both sides there was a desire for sovereign religious rule. Eventually the Protestant Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus made a move through much of the disputed area, requiring religious tolerance (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2813).

After many challenging negotiations the Peace of Westphalia was negotiated in 1648 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2834). Aside from determining borders, princes and subjects alike were allowed to be Catholic, Lutheran, or Reformed (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2842). Gonzalez views this as an important decision, which led to the rise of a secular state and threw into doubt the concept of affirming correct doctrine (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2848).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

An Age of Dogma and Doubt

11/28/2016

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Can we divide religious dogma from truth? Is it possible for someone to be a Christian and hold doubts about the truth claims of Scripture? These were serious questions in the 17th century.

Mondays are for Church History - 11/28/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 15 “An Age of Dogma and Doubt” Loc. 2703-2747.

Gonzalez introduces his readers to a paradigm shift in religious thought which occurred in the 17th century and following. There was a tendency to use religion to accomplish political goals, rather than to allow political goals to be shaped by religion (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2716). Because religion was so widely used as a political tool, it came to be seen essentially as political in nature, and merely as an instrument of reason, to be used or not depending on the desire of the individual (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2723). Theological orthodoxy tended to become less responsive to biblical demands (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2731).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

A Convulsed Age

11/21/2016

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. The idea of tolerance and plurality of doctrinal stands became very important in the 16th century and following. What could have caused this move? Does it conflict with the historic idea of “one holy, catholic, and apostolic Church”?

Mondays are for Church History - 11/21/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 14 “A Convulsed Age” Loc. 2596-2672.

In the 16th century, Gonzalez points out, Christianity was largely considered in European terms, bounded by Islam to south and east and the Atlantic to the west. Thoughts of the spread of Christianity aimed at conversion of Muslims (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2604). By the end of the century transportation had improved and Islam was becoming surrounded by Christianity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2611). Meanwhile, the Western idea of Medieval Christianity was changing, reflecting a greater cultural and theological diversity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2626). At the same time, all the major Protestant Reformers sought unity in the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2634). Eventually, civil governments, realizing such unity was unlikely, moved to tolerate a variety of religious views (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2644). Likewise, imperial unity and conciliar movements declined (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2648). The unifying factor which remained was a dependence on the Bible as God’s sufficient Word (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2664). This would remain the standard for unity and reform.

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!