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Reformation without Departure

11/7/2016

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On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. There’s a big difference between “Reformation” and “Secession.” Many Protestants think of one Reformation in which people decided to leave Rome and set up what they would view as “true Christianity.” Yet Gonzalez reminds us that at its heart “reformation” does not require departure. While there have been several reformational moves which resulted in the creation of new organizations outside of an existing church body, there have also been many reformational moves which did not result in a departure from the “parent” group. Here he discusses several reformational moves which remained within the context of the Roman church.

Mondays are for Church History - 11/7/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 12 “The Catholic Reformation” Loc. 2201-2427.

Gonzalez points out that there were reform movements within the bounds of the Roman church as well as in Protestantism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2209). Isabella of Spain worked for reform, especially in the training of pastors and in appointments of bishops (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2217). With her confessor, later archbishop Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros, she worked to reform monasteries, convents, and Universities (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2231). Though this was a reform movement, Gonzalez notes it was not engaged in doctrinal change. The Catholic Reformation was strictly dedicated to traditional Roman doctrine (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2253).As the Protestant Reformation began, it was the Catholic reformers who especially affirmed Roman doctrine. Among these, Gonzalez focuses on Robert Bellarmine and Caesar Baronius (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2267). Bellarmine, a systematics specialist, and Baronius, who was a historian, made foundational arguments for Roman doctrine as opposed to Protestantism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2274).  Several new and strict monastic orders arose in the 16th century, in fact (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2281). Teresa of Avila, the famous mystic, came from the group of new monastics (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2289). Ignatius of Loyola was also involved in responding to civil challenges of Christianity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2319).

Additionally, there were some moves toward reform within the papacy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2365). While some of the 16th century popes were reform minded, others were not. In this vein the Council of Trent was called in 1545. The council considered the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation in detail (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2396). The council remained active, though with frequent long recesses, until completing its work in 1563 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2403).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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France Joins the Fray

10/31/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 10/31/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 11 “Protestantism in France” Loc. 2044-2201.

France was seriously divided in the 16th century between the Protestants and Catholics (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2050). At the start of the Reformation, the French king Francis I had an ambiguous policy toward Protestants. Sometimes they were persecuted and sometimes encouraged (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2058). Across the border, in Navarre, Protestants were encouraged (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2064). After Francis, Henry II was more consistent in persecution, though the first Protestant church in France was organized during his reign (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2065). After his death, amid struggles for reign between Catholics and Protestants, the Protestants, called Huguenots, engaged in an attempt at the throne (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2081). By 1562 they were allowed to practice their faith but not to own places of worship or assemble in arms (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2095). After a Catholic attack on the Protestants there were various religious wars from 1567-1570 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2103). A treaty in 1570 seemed likely to lead to peace. However, tensions soon arose in August of 1570 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2118). On August 24, 1572, a huge slaughter took place in Paris (St. Bartholomew’s Day) (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2126). Other Protestants in other provinces were executed as well, with numbers in the tens of thousands” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2140).
Protestantism continued to make headway in France (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2148). Between 1574 and 1588 there were several conflicts among Protestants and Catholics seeking the throne. The Catholics were not ready for a Protestant king. Philip II from Spain considered making a move for the throne, but eventually Henry IV converted to Catholicism, his fifth conversion, which secured the throne and ended the war (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2187). He subsequently gave the Huguenots considerable freedom and security. He was killed at last by a Catholic who was persuaded he was a Protestant (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2194).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Reformation Below Sea Level

10/24/2016

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On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. The Low Countries, those places which make many of us think of windmills and dikes, moved toward the Reformation rather quickly. They were then attacked forcefully by the armies of the Roman authorities. These small independent states had quite a challenge on their hands. Let’s see what Gonzalez tells us.

Mondays are for Church History - 10/24/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 10 “The Reformation in the Low Countries” Loc. 1897-2043.

Gonzalez notes that in the Low Countries Protestants were present very early, with the first martyrdoms in Antwerp in 1523 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1903). In these provinces, near the mouth of the Rhine, Charles V encouraged common institutions but cultural diversity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1912). After 1555, when Charles turned the Provinces to his son, Philip, the sense of unity eroded (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1912). The Protestant Reformation, which had been active in the area, had been discouraged by Charles V (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1927). Philip took even more forceful action, being loyal to Rome (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1942).

The leaders of the Seventeen Provinces attempted to gain more autonomy, but received instead a promise that those who would violate the Council of Trent should be executed (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1956). The leaders, unwilling to engage in mass executions, resisted, taking on the sign of a beggar’s leather bag (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1963). This movement took on religious overtones, resulting in iconoclastic movements (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1971). In 1567, Philip appointed the duke of Alba to stop the rebellion and heresy using an army (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1979). This he attempted, with many arrests and mass executions. Elizabeth of England eventually supported the dissidents with considerable success (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1993). Alba retaliated fiercely, taking back all the territory he had lost, but never achieving naval control (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2001). Alba eventually was reassigned. His replacement, Requesens, chose to exploit the divide between Catholic and Protestant, effectively isolating the Protestants (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2009). The naval forces responded by flooding the lowlands and making a naval assault which overcame Requesens, who died at the time (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2016). The conflict continued between Philip and William of Orange until, some ten years after Philip’s death, in 1607, Spain allowed a truce and peace treaty (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 2038).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Meanwhile, back in Germany . . .

10/17/2016

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On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Under the threat and reality of open warfare, the Reformation grew in German lands in the 1500s. It was not all peaches and cream. Gonzalez helps us understand with a montage of challenges in the middle of the 16th century.

Mondays are for Church History - 10/17/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 9 “Further Developments within Lutheranism” Loc. 1747-1897.

After a peace treaty in Nuremberg in 1532, which stipulated that the Lutheran doctrines could not expand, the growth of the faith continued (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1754). Gonzalez details some of the complex political situations which contributed to the spread of Lutheranism during the 1530s, including various invasions and the death of several rulers who were loyal to Rome. There were also failures among the Protestants. Notably, Philip of Hesse remained married to a wife with whom he was not intimate, so secretly married a second wife (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1782), creating a scandal. Other setbacks included a Saxon duke who, though Protestant, declined to contribute to a rebellious alliance with the others. Further, Luther’s death in 1546 eroded some of the unity in the movement. Finally, the emperor invaded and captured numerous leaders, then imposed the “Augsburg Interim” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1798), a temporary command to unity with Rome in many matters. This was not accepted widely. This sentiment sparked military retaliation (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1813). After some negotiations it was agreed that the people of a region could hold the religious vow of their ruler (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1827). This applied only to Roman and Lutheran faiths, not the more radical branches of the Reformation. Gonzalez points out that farther to the north, in Scandinavia, the Lutheran points of view were taken up by the monarchs and embraced solidly (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1844). After some turbulent starts, Protestantism was allowed to be taken up freely. By 1533 it was firmly established (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1866).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Meanwhile, in Britain . . .

10/10/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 10/10/16

On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. The sixteenth century was a big time for Reformation in England as well as in Saxony and Switzerland. There seem to be more politically active characters in the English Reformation. Yes, theological debate has often sparked warfare. Then again, Christians are among those who have always believed the truth is worth dying for. Normally they have not been as willing to inflict death as they were during the time period Gonzalez is discussing here. What happened in England?

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 8 “The Reformation in Great Britain” Loc. 1444-1746.

Because of the British division between Scotland and England in the 16th century, Gonzalez treats them separately, here detailing England (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1450). The royal families of England and Spain made an alliance by marriage. After the death of his brother, Arthur, Henry of England married Spain’s Catherine with a papal dispensation allowing him to marry his brother’s widow. The marriage was not happy and did not produce an heir to the throne (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1457). Henry was not able to get his marriage annulled, Gonzalez suggests, because Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, who could prevent the pope from proclaiming what she would see as her dishonor (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1472). Henry moved to exercise royal control over the clergy, rather than Roman control. Gonzalez does not view Henry as a friend of Protestantism, merely as someone in conflict with the papacy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1486). Protestant ideas were, however, circulating in England. In 1534, the Parliament moved to seat the power over the Church in England in the royal throne (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1494). Thomas More, former chancellor, was subsequently imprisoned and executed for refusal to proclaim the layman king as the head of the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1501). After his there were more moves for religious reforms, rather than more political restructurings.

Henry went on to marry Anne Boleyn and later, after her execution on a charge of adultery, Jane Seymour, of whom Edward VI was born (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1515). Henry entered into two more attempted political marriages after Jane Seymour, as he desired an alliance with Germany (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1520). This was unsuccessful. Henry moved the English Church toward a form similar to Roman Catholicism, but for acceptance of the pope(Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1523). Meanwhile, a reform movement continued in the church, with growing popularity of English Scriptures and liturgy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1530).

After Henry’s death in 1547, Edward VI held reign under a regent, during which time Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer was released, first with a rather Lutheran  liturgy, then a second edition more Zwinglian in nature (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1546). Edward died after six years, leaving Mary, daughter of Catherine, on the throne. She worked to restore Roman Catholicism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1561). In 1554 england became officially Catholic again (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1561). The persecution of Protestants in her reign made her known as Bloody Mary (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1569). Cranmer, arrested and pressed to recant, did so in writing, but rejected his recantation before being executed (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1590).

In 1558 Mary was succeeded by Elizabeth, who restored Protestantism in England (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1598). A new edition of the Book of Common Prayer combined the wording of the first two editions. In 1562 the Thirty-Nine Articles  were published, creating boundaries of unity within which most Protestants and Catholics could find fellowship (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1613). By the end of Elizabeth’s reign, many Catholics were finding they could be faithful both to their religion and their queen (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1628).

During the 16th century Scotland had remained mostly allied to France (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1645). However, Protestantism gained ground in Scotland during the century. Mary Stuart, heir to the throne in 1542 as an infant, was eventually married to a French Catholic prince (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1659). Protestants, soon under the influence of John Knox, took possession of the Castle of St. Andrew’s (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1659). Knox, arrested in the recapture of St. Andrew’s, was eventually released at the behest of Edward VI (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1674). The persecution under Mary Tudor drove Knox and others to Geneva and Zurich, where their Calvinist ideas were strengthened (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1674). Meanwhile, after the death of Mary Tudor, Mary Stuart claimed both the Scottish and English thrones, becoming the enemy of Elizabeth (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1682). The Calvinist leaders became more of a polarizing influence in Scotland at this time (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1689).

In 1560 the stage was set for a full scale conflict between Elizabeth and Mary with John Knox and the Reformed Church in Scotland as a catalyst (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1712). Mary, intent on the English throne, made various political mistakes which quickly discredited her (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1728). She was finally executed for her conspiracies.

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Meet John Calvin

10/3/2016

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On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Whoever the radical reformers were, one of the most important characters in post-Reformation Christianity is John Calvin. Was he radical? Was he conservative? He certainly approached theology in a different way than many others. Let’s meet Calvin.

Mondays are for Church History - 10/3/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 7 “John Calvin” Loc. 1272-1443.

Gonzalez identifies John Calvin as “the most important systematizer of Protestant theology in the sixteenth century” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1278). He contrasts Calvin’s work as a systematician to Luther’s work, largely focused on the freedom of justification.

Calvin, born in 1509, had connections and resources for advancement in the Church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1286). Family conflicts with ecclesial authorities redirected Calvin’s studies to law, in which context he became very familiar with the elite humanism of his time (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1294).

During studies in Paris, prior to 1534, Calvin broke with Rome and joined the Protestants, though Gonzalez does not find a date or cause (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1294). In January 1535 Calvin went to Basel, in exile (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1302). His desire was to write treatises explaining the Christian faith (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 131). This resulted in his first edition of the Institutes in 1536, which grew in scope in future editions (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1317). The definitive text, released in Latin in 1559 and French in 1560, is four volumes with a total of eighty chapters (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1324).

Desiring to relocate to Strasbourg in 1536, Calvin made a detour to Geneva, where the new Protestant leadership eagerly solicited his help and support (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1340). He quickly became influential in the city. He insisted that excommunication was a function of church and not civil government, a stand which resulted in his exile from Geneva (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1364). From 1538-1541 he lived in Strasbourg, where he worked on the Institutes, a French liturgy, and where he married (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1371).

In 1541 Calvin was able to return to Geneva, where he managed to negotiate a church body which would hold some civil authority (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1379). The work of governing was held in four orders - pastors, teachers, elders, and deacons (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1386). There remained a separate civil government, which clashed with the church government.
After a theological dissident, Michael Servetus, was executed for heresies, not for his medical work, Calvin was well established in his authority (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1401). Calvin died in 1564 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1409).

Theologically, Calvin’s position on communion, the most divisive issue of his time, was between the positions of Luther and Zwingli. The presence of Christ is real but spiritual rather than bodily. In communion, since Jesus is in heaven, the believer is taken to heaven spiritually to be in the presence of Christ (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1417). In Gonzalez’ view, though Luther and Calvin may have been able to reach agreement, their followers would not (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1425). Calvin’s influence through the Institutes spread broadly in Europe, with an emphasis on reforming society (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1434).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Radical Christianity

9/26/2016

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On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. With its reform movements, the 16th century brought up an important question. Some people will always think that any change is too much. Some will always think any amount of change is too little. The two groups are often referred to as “conservative” and “progressive.” Sometimes the “progressive” group is also called “radical.” What is the Radical Reformation?

Mondays are for Church History - 9/26/16

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 6 “The Radical Reformation” Loc. 1127-1271.

Both Luther and Zwingli sought reformation. Gonzalez now addresses those who thought they had not made sufficient changes. The early Anabaptists sought a more clear distinction between church and society (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1133). Joining with Christ required personal decision prior to being admitted to the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1141). They also held to a rigorously pacifist view (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1149). This group baptized several adults in 1525, calling themselves “brethren.” The term “Anabaptist” suggested they were practicing a second baptism, though they would hold their infant baptism was not valid (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1165). By 1527 leaders defined several principles which would be agreed upon by most Anabaptists (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1179). Anabaptists were widely accused of heresy and sedition, both church and civil crimes (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1203). After the first generation was mostly imprisoned and executed, the next generation was less pacifist (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1210). Some radicals took up arms against those who would oppose their doctrine. They also destroyed works of art they saw as idols or symbols of traditionalism (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1232).

After some struggles, the idea of pacifism returned with the leadership of Menno Simons, whose followers were later called Mennonites (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1207). Simons considered pacifism, confessors’ baptism, and a purely symbolic view of baptism and communion as essential doctrines (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1255).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Ulrich Zwingli and Swiss Reformation

9/19/2016

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On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. Martin Luther was not the only Christian reformer in the 16th century. Today we meet another person, this one from Switzerland.

Mondays are for Church History - 9/19/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 5 “Ulrich Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation” Loc. 995-1126.

Gonzalez turns to a more radical branch of the Reformation with Ulrich Zwingli (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1001). Zwingli, born in 1484, studied in Bern, Vienna, and Basel. He was not only a strong humanist, but also a priest (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1001). He was also a patriot, going along on mercenary tours, concluding that the mercenaries were bad for society (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1009). He reached many theological conclusions which were similar to Luther’s (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1015). He distanced himself from indulgences and shows of papal authority (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1028) This movement was more radical in its behaviors than Luther’s, including violation of traditions of fasting and also celibacy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1044). In an effort to regain biblical practice Zwingli banned the use of instruments not found in the Bible (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1051). Communion was made less frequent, received while sitting, and included bread and cup (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1058). Zwingli died in a military action against Zurich in 1531 (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1066). Zwingli took a higher view of human reason than did Luther (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1082). Luther took a much higher view of the sensual rather than of the rational (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1096). Zwingli held to a view of the elements in communion as symbols, rather than real body and blood (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 110). In the Marburg Colloquy of 1529, Zwingli and his followers debated issues with Luther and his followers. They failed to agree on the sacramental nature of communion (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1112). This made for two distinct branches of the Reformation (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 1119).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Martin Luther's Theology

9/12/2016

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On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. What has happened in the past often has a lot to do with how we will need to view the present and look to the future. History is not just names and dates. It’s about real people doing real things in the real world. Often we have to consider a person’s world view before we can understand his actions. What was up with Martin Luther just a few years after he sparked so much debate?
Mondays are for Church History - 9/12/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 4 “Luther’s Theology” Loc. 827-994.
Gonzalez considers Luther’s theology to be largely mature by 1521, when he appeared at Worms (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 833). He viewed Scripture as “the starting point and the final authority for his theology” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 833). At the same time, he affirmed Jesus as the living Word of God (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 842). God, then, is active through His Word. “The Bible is the Word of God because in it Jesus, the Word incarnate, comes to us” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 850). Another distinction of Luther’s theology is his theology of the cross (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 870). Rather than being a theologian of man’s glory, reaching to God, we see God’s self-revelation in Jesus, the one who reaches to us (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 878). God has revealed himself in two ways, law and gospel (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 886). “The contrast between law and gospel shows that God’s revelation is both a work of judgment and a word of grace. The two always come together, and one cannot hear the word of grace without hearing also the word of judgment” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 886). Further, Luther, sometimes considered a rationalist or an individualist, was neither (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 910). He considered human reason as unreliable. The importance of the church as God’s way of salvation was affirmed by him (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 910). It is within the life of the church that we find our place and purpose (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 918). Because of this value of the Word of God and the life of the church, Luther consciously asserted only two sacraments, both instituted by Jesus with a command, a physical sign, and a promise of the gospel. These are baptism and communion (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 933). Gonzalez recognizes both as being instituted by God and applied to humans who respond in faith (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 941). The final doctrine Gonzalez discusses in this chapter is Luther’s doctrine of two kingdoms (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 972). The civil realm operates based on law, while the church real operates based on gospel. Both are necessary. Both must act within their right boundaries.
All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Reformation, Revolution, Ripples

9/5/2016

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Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry is named after a door. It’s the door on which Martin Luther posted 95 topics for discussion in October of 1517. On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. What has happened in the past often has a lot to do with how we will need to view the present and look to the future. History is not just names and dates. It’s about real people doing real things in the real world. What happened after 1517? Let’s see.
Mondays are for Church History - 9/5/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 3 “An Uncertain Decade” Loc. 663-826.
After the Edict of Worms, giving Luther until mid-May of 1521 to recant, there were several rapid steps of negotiation with members of the Diet of Worms. By the time the emperor was free to arrest Luther, he had been abducted and taken into protective custody (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 670). While in custody, he began a translation of the Bible, which remains an influence on the German language. Meanwhile, others, especially Andreas Karlstadt and Philipp Melanchthon, continued the work of reformation (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 678). Some excesses grew at Wittenberg, provoking Luther to leave his isolation (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 693). At this time, papal and imperial attention was distracted by other conflicts. Gonzalez gives a brief summary of a number of situations, particularly a peasants’ uprising which involved Luther (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 737). Luther had difficulty articulating the responsibility of nobility to peasants and vice versa. Another controversy involved the release of nuns from a convent and their subsequent marriages (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 752).  Meanwhile, debate between Luther and the moderate Roman humanist Erasmus was pursued regarding free will (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 774). Various Diets were conducted during this time but until 1530 in Augsburg, the Edict of Worms was not clearly enforced or overturned. In Augsburg (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 797), there was doctrinal discussion and the presentation by Philipp Melanchthon of the Augsburg Confession, which was rejected by the emperor and accepted by many others. The common and widespread acceptance of the Augsburg Confession set the stage for a war between Rome and the “League of Schmalkalden” (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 813), presenting a unified front in favor of Luther’s theology. This was again interrupted by a common enemy, Islam, invading Europe and seeking to capture Vienna.
All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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Martin Luther - Hero? Villain? Something Else?

8/29/2016

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Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry is named after a door. It’s the door on which Martin Luther posted 95 topics for discussion in October of 1517. On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. What has happened in the past often has a lot to do with how we will need to view the present and look to the future. Currently we’re walking through a book by Justo Gonzalez, well regarded among church historians. Let’s see how he can open our eyes to a different time and place.
Mondays are for Church History - 8/22/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 1 “The Call for Reformation” Loc. 216-387.
At the close of the fifteenth century there was a well known need for reformation in the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 223). The conciliar movement of the earlier time had not brought lasting change or stability to the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 230). Moral and scholarly laxity as well as disregard of vocation became common within the clergy and the monastic movement (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 237). At the same time, as a result of the fall of Constantinople, new manuscripts and knowledge of Greek language and literature came to the West (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 252). A desire for reformation grew out of these elements. At the same time, the feudal system and the sense of the church as the defender of the poor broke down (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 267). Growth of nationalism and the acceptance of vernacular languages also came about in the 15th and 16th centuries (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 274). Inquisitions, traditionally carried on by bishops investigating and correcting doctrine, fell to royalty, who tended to be more forceful (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 294). With all of these many changes, Gonzalez affirms that it was impossible for the church not to re-evaluate itself (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 321). The “humanist reformers” took a view that understanding of the literature of antiquity would restore Christian practice (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 329). As an example of this, Gonzalez introduces Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus reached a conclusion that the precepts of Christ harmonized with the best of ancient Greek philosophy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 351). A life of discipline and balance in the world would be the ideal. Obedience and life were more important to Erasmus than doctrinal purity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 358). As the Reformation broke out, various factions wanted Erasmus’ support. However, he was never clearly aligned with any of the groups (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 373).
All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

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August 22nd, 2016

8/22/2016

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Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry is named after a door. It’s the door on which Martin Luther posted 95 topics for discussion in October of 1517. On Mondays we want to encourage discussion about Church history. What has happened in the past often has a lot to do with how we will need to view the present and look to the future. Currently we’re walking through a book by Justo Gonzalez, well regarded among church historians. Let’s see how he can open our eyes to a different time and place.

Mondays are for Church History - 8/22/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 1 “The Call for Reformation” Loc. 216-387.
At the close of the fifteenth century there was a well known need for reformation in the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 223). The conciliar movement of the earlier time had not brought lasting change or stability to the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 230). Moral and scholarly laxity as well as disregard of vocation became common within the clergy and the monastic movement (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 237). At the same time, as a result of the fall of Constantinople, new manuscripts and knowledge of Greek language and literature came to the West (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 252). A desire for reformation grew out of these elements. At the same time, the feudal system and the sense of the church as the defender of the poor broke down (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 267). Growth of nationalism and the acceptance of vernacular languages also came about in the 15th and 16th centuries (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 274). Inquisitions, traditionally carried on by bishops investigating and correcting doctrine, fell to royalty, who tended to be more forceful (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 294). With all of these many changes, Gonzalez affirms that it was impossible for the church not to re-evaluate itself (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 321). The “humanist reformers” took a view that understanding of the literature of antiquity would restore Christian practice (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 329). As an example of this, Gonzalez introduces Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus reached a conclusion that the precepts of Christ harmonized with the best of ancient Greek philosophy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 351). A life of discipline and balance in the world would be the ideal. Obedience and life were more important to Erasmus than doctrinal purity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 358). As the Reformation broke out, various factions wanted Erasmus’ support. However, he was never clearly aligned with any of the groups (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 373).

All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!

​
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The Call for Reformation

5/16/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 5/16/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 2. New York: HarperCollins, 2010b. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Chapter 1 “The Call for Reformation” Loc. 216-387.
At the close of the fifteenth century there was a well known need for reformation in the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 223). The conciliar movement of the earlier time had not brought lasting change or stability to the church (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 230). Moral and scholarly laxity as well as disregard of vocation became common within the clergy and the monastic movement (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 237). At the same time, as a result of the fall of Constantinople, new manuscripts and knowledge of Greek language and literature came to the West (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 252). A desire for reformation grew out of these elements. At the same time, the feudal system and the sense of the church as the defender of the poor broke down (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 267). Growth of nationalism and the acceptance of vernacular languages also came about in the 15th and 16th centuries (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 274). Inquisitions, traditionally carried on by bishops investigating and correcting doctrine, fell to royalty, who tended to be more forceful (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 294). With all of these many changes, Gonzalez affirms that it was impossible for the church not to re-evaluate itself (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 321). The “humanist reformers” took a view that understanding of the literature of antiquity would restore Christian practice (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 329). As an example of this, Gonzalez introduces Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus reached a conclusion that the precepts of Christ harmonized with the best of ancient Greek philosophy (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 351). A life of discipline and balance in the world would be the ideal. Obedience and life were more important to Erasmus than doctrinal purity (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 358). As the Reformation broke out, various factions wanted Erasmus’ support. However, he was never clearly aligned with any of the groups (Gonzalez 2010b, Loc. 373).
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The Crusades

3/14/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 3/14/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 31, “The Offensive Against Islam” Loc. 6026-6221.

The Crusades were waged out of a desire to take back areas which had been overcome by Islam through military force. Though the Crusades did briefly liberate Constantinople and bring a brief period of a united East and West in the Church, the results were temporary (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6034).

The first crusade, launched in 1095 but Urban II, sought to take back the Holy Land from the Turks (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6056). The forces were not well governed and tended to engage in conflicts as they moved through allegedly friendly territory. After taking Nicea, then Antioch with great difficulty, they moved by June 1099 to Jerusalem (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6084). The city fell in chaos on July 15, 1099 (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6094). While many of the Crusaders then left, there were frequent small armed forces coming from Europe to provide support (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6105). These movements had less centralized organization.

A second crusade came after the fall of Edessa in 1144. Nearly 200,000 troops were repeatedly defeated before disbanding (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6116). A third was launched after the fall of Jerusalem in 1187. This one too accomplished little (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6127). A fourth crusade resulted in a new Latin emperor in Constantinople, followed by disputes between East and West in the Church (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6137). A fifth then sixth crusade sought and eventually captured Jerusalem, then by 1270 a seventh crusade resulted in the imprisonment and death of Louis IX of France (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6147).

In connection with the various Crusades Gonzalez discusses the Spanish Reconquista, an attempt to take Spain back from the Muslim invasions of the 8th century (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6147). By this time in many areas there were family alliances between Christians and Muslims. Due to various revolts the Caliphate was losing power in Spain in the 11th century (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6168). Christian forces took back the territory, mostly during the 13th century (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6168).

Much of the outcome of the Crusades was embodied in mistrust between Islam and Christianity as well as between East and West (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6179). There also developed a greater emphasis on relics, monastic and military orders, and pilgrimages (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6188). The Church tended to be more free in endorsing military action. Also a greater interest in philosophy and theology from foreign lands developed (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 6198).
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Renewal Movements

3/7/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 3/7/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 30, “Movements of Renewal” Loc. 5712-6025.

As the Carolingian Empire declined Gonzalez sees a new desire for order (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5712). Because many reform-minded people had joined the monastic movement, much reform later came from that sector (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5720). In the early 10th century the monastery at Cluny was dedicated as a reform-minded community (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5741). The reforms were centered around the Rule of St. Benedict and observance of the liturgical hours (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5752). The movement spread to promote clerical celibacy as a rule, not simply a common lifestyle (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5780). The Cistercian movement arose in the late 11th century. Its prominent leader was Bernard of Clairvaux, “at once the mystic devoted to the contemplation of the humanity of Christ, the power behind and above the papacy . . . the champion of ecclesiastical reform, the preacher of the Second Crusade, and the enemy of all theological innovation” (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5819).

Another attempt at reform began in the mid 11th century, when there were  legislative attempts to use Canon law for papal reform (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5830). By the work of Pope Leo IX much reformation of simony and a move for priestly celibacy was made (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5862). By 1070 there were moves by Gregory VII to end simony, require a celibate clergy, and to seek the return of the Eastern church (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5893).

Under Emperor Henry IV the empire and papacy came into conflict (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5914). The emperor wished to appoint bishops who would support him while the pope wanted support from the emperor. There was a military engagement late in 1075 followed by a popular revolt against the emperor in Rome. Both pope and emperor deposed one another (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5924). There followed several interactions of formal forgiveness followed by hostility. By 1081 Gregory was in exile, the Normans took Rome for Henry, and the subsequent situation became increasingly politicized (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5956). Gonzalez summarizes a number of these clashes prior to a cessation of many hostilities in 1122 (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5997).
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Restoration and Decay

2/29/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 2/29/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 29, “Imperial Restoration and Continuing Decay” Loc. 5503-5711.

In the year 800 Pope Leo III crowned Charles as the emperor of the West, 324 years after the deposition of the last Western emperor (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5503). This was a sort of rebirth of the Roman Empire, but now as a Christian empire. Charlemagne determined to extend his rule by both bloodshed and baptism. The forced baptisms were taken by those who had been baptized and were applied to others. “As emperor, Charlemagne felt called to rule his people both in civil and in ecclesiastical matters. He appointed bishops just as he named generals, although always seeking men of worth. He also enacted laws ordering that there be preaching in the language of the people, that Sunday be kept as a day of worship and rest, and that tithes be collected as if they were a tax” (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5530). Charlemagne also encouraged an educated clergy and nobility. After his time the reforms he had instituted decayed quickly (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5541). Where strong rulers remained some theology and education continued, but the academy did not flourish. Gonzalez notes one systematic thinker of merit, John Scotus Erigena (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5572). His theology tended strongly toward Neoplatonism. One important theological controversy of the period was related to the Mozarabic church in Spain, with an interpretation of Jesus as the Son of God by adoption (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5590). Debates about predestination and about Christ’s presence in communion also arose (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5604). As regards the presence of Christ, Paschasius Radbertus asserted that bread and wine become body and blood, ceasing to be bread and wine in communion. Counter to this, Ratramnus of Corbie clarified that the body of Christ is truly present, but that it is not the historical body, which is at the right hand of the Father (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5615).

The Carolingian peace did not last long. Norse attacks began during the 9th century (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5645). As they invaded, many of the Norse became Christians (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5650). This was true also of invaders from the east (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5655).

Gonzalez notes that the papacy was “in an ambiguous position” during this time (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5665). The popes were able to crown emperors but were not effective at leading the Church. There was a rapid succession of popes, some killing or imprisoning others (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5687).

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Eastern Christianity

2/22/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 2/22/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 28, “Eastern Christianity” Loc. 5150-5502.

In this chapter Gonzalez reminds the reader that during the Middle Ages the Church was still one entity, though the East and West were gradually separating. The political instability in the West led to the church filling a vacuum. In the East there was much less instability. “This usually led to civil intervention in ecclesiastical matters, particularly in theological debates” (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5158). Theological debate tended to be couched in political terms. This eventually led to schism. Among these debates was the way the human and divine met in Jesus (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5169). The Alexandrian school tended to emphasize Jesus’ deity, while the Antiochian school emphasized his humanity. The issue of how the two natures could exist in one person was a matter of debate in the East while the West simply confessed it but did not explain it (Gonzalez 2010, Loc 5190). In the East the Appolinarians postulated that God the Son replaced the human rational soul in Jesus (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5200). This was rejected by the Council of Constantinople in 381. Nestorius later suggested that Mary be considered not “Mother of God” but “Mother of Christ.” This could downplay Jesus’ divinity and divide (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5232). The Council of Ephesus in 431 rejected this though their ruling was immediately contested. On the other hand, Eutyches proposed that in his earthly work Christ had only one nature, the divine. This was rejected in a council in Ephesus in 449 (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5253). In council in Chalcedon in 451 Eutyches was again condemned (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5273). From this, most Christians accepted a view of two natures in Christ, but some, the Monophysites, found only one nature (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5296). There followed several councils in which the factions condemned one another. By the early 8th century the controversy shifted to the use of images in worship, a common practice in the early church (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5348). The source of the controversy is unclear. In 787 there was an ecumenical council at Nicaea which distinguished between worship and appropriate reverence (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5369).

Gonzalez also mentions church bodies in the East which had sought autonomy (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5381). These churches later declined but some still exist. Because of the spread of Islam they could not grow to the south but did expand into Russia and territories (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5422). Relations between East and West tended to worsen until there arose what currently seems a permanent schism (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5486).
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New European Order

2/15/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 2/15/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 27, “The New Order” Loc. 4687-5149.

As the Western Roman Empire fell, numerous independent kingdoms arose. Some of the powers fell also to monastics and the papacy (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4689). Gonzalez considers these new kingdoms, the monastic and papist changes, and forces of invaders in turn.

The Vandals, Arians, had taken over much of North Africa in the 5th century. They were deposed by the Byzantine forces from Constantinople, leaving Christianity badly divided in time for the Muslim invasions of the late 7th century (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4713). The Visigoths, Arians who controlled Spain from the fifth to eighth century, were often at war and progressively were orthodox until overthrown by Muslims in the 8th century (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4717). In Gaul the Burgundians and then the Merovingians held sway (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4748). In Britain there was a series of pagan invasions resulting in Christians being pushed back into relative powerlessness (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4773), though Christianity flourished in Ireland. From there, missionary activity later spread throughout Europe, with a variety of liturgical customs (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4816). There were various incursions of Germanic people into Italy which eventually resulted in authority sharing arrangements between popes and kings (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4838).

At this time a form of practical monasticism arose, focused on community and often acting in cooperation with bishops and popes (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4851). From this movement Benedict and his Rule for an orderly life arose (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4863). Gonzalez describes some of the elements of the ordered monastic life including obedience, care for all, and prayer.

Along with the growth of monasticism, the papacy provided stability in society (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4921). In the East the term (pope) was used to refer to any esteemed bishop, while in the West it referred only to the bishop of Rome (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4926). During the 5th century various popes arose with increasingly forceful views, eventually one in the East and one in the West (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4965). As Rome declined and faced a plague, in the late 6th century Gregory arose and led the community, establishing papal power quite securely (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5003). In his time the doctrines of penance were developed as well as the idea that Christ was being sacrificed in the Mass (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5041).

In the 7th century, just as order seemed to be emerging in much of the old Roman territory, Islam arose to threaten the world (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5071). Centered around monotheism, prayer, taxation, fasting, and pilgrimage (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5083), Islam quickly took on military objectives, overthrew Arabia, and spread (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5092). Christianity was largely eradicated in the East (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 5126).
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Christianity - Not Just for Rome

2/8/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 2/8/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 25, “Beyond the Borders of the Empire” Loc. 4511-4625.

Christianity did spread beyond the borders of the Roman empire. “Among the Germanic ‘barbarians’ of the north, Christianity gained a foothold long before the barbarians themselves broke into the Roman Empire. But the most impressive expansion was toward the east, and there are Christians in the twenty-first century who trace their origins to those early churches beyond the Eastern borders of the empire (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4518). The Old and New Testaments spread in Syriac versions. The city of Edessa became Christian before 216 (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4537). Armenia had a Christian ruler in 303 (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4556). Ethiopia had a Christian presence from an early time, as did Mesopotamia and Persia (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4566) Many of the Eastern Christians were politically opposed to Rome and likewise sought ways to disagree doctrinally (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4575). In Arabia the version of Christianity was quite muddled by the time of Muhammad (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4584). Christianity in India dates back to a very early time and was “firmly implanted . . . by the beginning of the fifth century” (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4594). Ireland and the Germanic lands north of Constantinople were also places where Christianity of one sort or another flourished (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4612).
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Rome Crumbles

2/8/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 2/8/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 26, “The End of an Era” Loc. 4626-4682.

In this brief chapter Gonzalez reviews the end of the Roman era. The Western part of the Roman empire was falling apart and with it the relative peace and security for the spread of Christianity (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4633). In the East the imperial church would remain for about a thousand years, but not so in the West. There, the church “became the guardian of civilization and of order” (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4642). It was Christianity, not stable government, which held society together through the Middle Ages.

Gonzalez ends this portion of his book with a bibliography of suggested readings (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4662-4682).




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Augustine of Hippo

2/1/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 2/1/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 24, “Augustine of Hippo” Loc. 4303-4510.

Augustine was one of the most influential Christian leaders of all time. He was born in 354 in Tagaste, in North Africa. His mother, Monica, was a fervent Christian (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4310). At age 17, he had the opportunity to pursue education in Carthage, where he also took a concubine and fathered a son (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4321) Augustine took up Manichaeism, a form of dualism in which one would prepare the soul to dwell in light. The Manichaeans openly mocked Christianity (Gonzalez 2010, Lc. 4342). The Bible was rejected as primitive literature and God rejected because of the presence of evil (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4349). After being unable to find Manichaean teachers who could answer his questions, Augustine had opportunity to go to Rome, pursuing his career and seeking answers. He was not paid well in Rome so then moved to Milan (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4359). In Milan, Augustine first pursued the Neoplatonists, who viewed evil as the focus away from God rather than toward him (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4368). He then went to hear Ambrose as a rhetorician. Ambrose’s preaching was eloquent and he resolved Augustine’s doubts. However, Augustine did not wish to become a monk or give up all pleasure (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4378). At last he did resolve to trust Jesus, was baptized along with his son, and returned home to Tagaste after the death of his mother. He sought an orderly but not rigorous life of contemplation (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4398).

In 391 Augustine visited Hippo to invite a friend to his community. While there he was urged to serve in ministry to the church at Hippo, where he was appointed bishop four years later (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4408). As a bishop he was busy with pastoral care and spent a good deal of time writing most of his works (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4417). Against Manichaean determinism he urged free choice, which allows our freedom to do evil (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4427). Augustine also refuted Docetism, alleging the power of the sacrament itself (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4437). His just war theory has been used by Christians ever since (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4447). Augustine was also the champion of biblical orthodoxy against Pelagius, who alleged that our freedom allowed us to overcome sin (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4447). Augustine held that apart from Christ fallen man is unable not to sin. Saving faith therefore is a gift of grace which enables us then to avoid sin (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4467). This view was eventually adopted in 529 by the Synod of Orange (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4477).

Gonzalez briefly summarizes Augustine’s most important works, Confessions and The City of God.
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Jerome

1/25/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 1/25/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 23, “Jerome” Loc. 4196-4302.

Gonzalez introduces us to Jerome as a very “intriguing” character. “He is outstanding, not for his sanctity, like Anthony, nor for his keen theological insight, like Athanasius, nor for his firmness before the authorities, like Ambrose, nor even for his preaching, like Chrysostom, but rather for his titanic and endless struggle with the world and with himself” (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4200). Jerome was painstaking personally and expected no less of others (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4204). Though he was born in 348, later than many of the fourth century leaders, he rose to the top rank quickly (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4208). Because of struggles with his own desires Jerome pursued a very ascetic life, even refusing to bathe because he had been washed by Christ (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4213). He left his life of asceticism prior to 381, being ordained a presbyter in Antioch, spending time in Constantinople, then Rome (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4222), where Bishop Damasus of Rome encouraged him to make a new Latin translation of the Bible. After 384 Jerome left Rome for Jerusalem, with a side trip for research in Egypt (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4242). He and the two ladies who accompanied him from Rome founded two monastic houses in Jerusalem and he pursued his translation work (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4249). Gonzalez details Augustine’s objections to Jerome’s work (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4264), as Augustine considered the Septuagint and the other translations adequate. Though Jerome and Augustine had a serious disagreement, Jerome later came to respect Augustine’s work (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4286).
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John Chrysostom

1/18/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 1/18/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 22, “John Chrysostom” Loc. 4068-4195.

In this chapter Gonzalez introduces us to John of Constantinople, who was named “Chrysostom” or “golden-mouth” about a hundred years after his death (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4070). By training, he was a lawyer. At the age of 20 he undertook studies for baptism, which were completed three years later in Antioch (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4081). As a compromise with his mother, who did not wish him to join the monastic life, he turned their house into a monastery (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4089). After six additional years of monastic life following his mother’s death, John entered into public life as a deacon then a presbyter (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4094). In 397, the emperor sent John to Constantinople as bishop (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4098). In Constantinople, John sought reform of a lax clergy (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4110). The weak emperor’s “ruler”, Eutropius, a chamberlain, had conflicts with John, eventually seeking to arrest fugitives in the church. John did not allow this and Eutropius declined in power (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4130). Because of John’s decisions not to bow to the influence of powerful people, he fell out of favor with powerful figures in Constantinople (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4138). Chrysostom was eventually exiled (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4147) and took to writing rather than preaching. This, in turn, brought conflict between the West and East, as the bishops and leaders in Rome supported Chrysostom. A Latin delegation to Constantinople was imprisoned, tortured, and bribed prior to an attempt to drown them all (Gonzalez 2010, oc. 4172). Chrysostom was removed to a more remote community, was driven hard by his captors, and died on the way (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4184). The differences between East and West may be important. Gonzalez notes that in the East the Church tended to decline and the Empire gained strength, while in the West the Empire crumbled and the Church gained strength. This phenomenon can be seen in a comparison of Ambrose and Chrysostom (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4189).
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Ambrose of Milan

1/11/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 1/11/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 21, “Ambrose of Milan” Loc. 3967-4067.

Ambrose of Milan had a “dramatic” career, according to Gonzalez. In 373, the bishop of Milan, Auxentius, died. As he was appointed by an Arian emperor, the stage was set for conflict between orthodox and Arian factions (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 3975). Milan’s governor, Ambrose, sought to assure a fair election and avoid riots. As Ambrose addressed the crowd at the church, a cry of “Ambrose, bishop” began (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 3980). Despite Ambrose’s attempts, he agreed to become the bishop, rising suddenly through baptism and the ministerial orders (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 3985). Ambrose poured himself into the work, gaining all the theological training he could in a short time. Ambrose brought much of the learning of the Eastern Church to the West, including the work of the Cappadocians (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 3996). Ambrose had deep convictions of pastoral care and of support for the poor and weak (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4009). He was also instrumental in the conversion of Augustine (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4014). Ambrose was adamant in his opposition to Arianism, refusing an imperial request to have an Arian basilica (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4024). After the defeat of Maximus, an Arian, by the Eastern emperor, Theodosius, the empire had only one emperor, a Nicene Christian (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4039). Despite being largely in theological agreement, when there were disputes between Theodosius and Ambrose, Theodosius was defeated (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 4043). This made for a bond of trust between the two, creating respect for Ambrose.
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Who's a Cappadocian?

1/4/2016

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Mondays are for Church History - 1/4/16
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Reformation. Revised and Updated ed. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Ch. 20, “The Great Cappadocians” Loc. 3797-3966.

Cappadocia, now a part of Turkey, was home to three great Fathers: Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus (Gonzalez 2010, Loc. 3800). Basil and Gregory of Nyssa were brothers, whose sister, Macrina, was also notable. Macrina had given herself to a celibate life of contemplation (Ibid., Loc. 3814). Basil, much younger than Macrina, was trained at Caesarea, then Antioch, Constantinople, and Athens, meeting Gregory of Nazanzus and Julian, who would later be known as “the Apostate” (Ibid., Loc. 3819). Macrina confronted Basil about his arrogance, eventually making an impression during a time of grief (Ibid., Loc. 3827). At her suggestion, Basil studied with the Egyptian monasts, bringing the monastic ideals to Greece. Because the monastic life is that of service, Basil urged community life. He is credited for writing the rules which serve as the foundation for all Eastern monasticism (Ibid., Loc. 3850). Against his will, he was made bishop of Caesarea (Ibid., Loc. 3855) to oppose Arians in leadership. He stood firm in his orthodoxy against all threats. Basil died shortly before the Council of Constantinople in 381 (Ibid., Loc. 3887). Unlike Basil, Gregory of Nyssa was of a very quiet temperament (Ibid., Loc. 3887). After the death of his wife he took up a monastic life as “a way to avoid the pains and struggles of active life” (Ibid., Loc. 3896). He was, however, forced by Basil “to become bishop of Nyssa, which was little more than a village” (Ibid., Loc. 3896). After the Council of Constantinople he became an advisor to Emperor Theodosius (Ibid., Loc. 3901). He later managed to retire into obscurity. Gregory of Nazianzus was from a devout Christian family. He was trained in Caesarea then Athens (Ibid., Loc. 3911). After some time in the monastic life he was ordained as a presbyter, taking on pastoral roles, though reluctantly (Ibid., Loc. 3920). After the death of Basil he took up the fight against Arianism. He was later appointed bishop of Constantinople (Ibid., Loc. 3938), though he soon resigned that post, returning to Nazianzus. The affirmation of the Trinity in the Council of Constantinople owed a great deal to the work of Basil and the gwo Gregories (Ibid., Loc. 3950).
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