Category: Danielou 1956 - Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry

Tabernacles and the Church

11/18/2021

11/18/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Twenty: The Feast of Tabernacles." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 333-347.

Daniélou notes that while the paschal feast and pentecost were taken into Christianity with a change of focus, the third major feast, that of Tabernacles, was not brought so directly into Christianity (Daniélou 1956, 333). The feast featured dwelling in shelters, reminiscent of God's protection of His people in the desert. It was also interpreted as looking forward toa place of rest in God's eternal kingdom (Daniélou 1956, 334). Since Tabernacles comes at the end of the year's farm work, the Fathers took it as significant of the final gathering in of Christians in God's kingdom (Daniélou 1956, 335).

Judaism had already attached a Messianic significance to Tabernacles, as a time of being gathered together around the harvest, significant of the last days (Daniélou 1956, 337). The early Christians simply attached a more specific and clear interpretation, that the feast would be a foretaste of the heavenly gathering and feast with Christ as his resurrected people (Daniélou 1956, 337). The tabernacle served as a sign of our temporary, earthly, dwelling.

Many of the events of Jesus' life are clearly tied to the paschal and pentecost events. The connection to Tabernacles is not quite as obvious. However, not only Jesus' presentation as the source of living water, but also the Transfiguration, is related in time (Daniélou 1956, 339). The Transfiguration happened six or eight days after Tabernacles. Additionally, the apostles initially responded by an offer to build tabernacles (Daniélou 1956, 340). If the apostolic interpretation of the event was correct, Jesus in his transfiguration was allowing the apostles to look forward to theirs as well.

Daniélou also suggests that the waving of palm branches during Jesus' entry to Jerusalem is signified by a procession which would happen on the last day of Tabernacles (Daniélou 1956, 341). More of the liturgy from Tabernacles is adopted by John in Revelation to describe events around the altar of God.

Because of the chronological difficulty in linking specific events to Tabernacles, some Christians, such as Didymus the Blind, considered Tabernacles as a preview of the entirety of the liturgical year (Daniélou 1956, 343). Daniélou describes how various elements of the celebration of Tabernacles would suggest different events in the year. While some of the connections seem tenuous, there is reason to think that there are many points of connection between Tabernacles and the Church year.

History of Pentecost Celebrations

11/17/2021

11/17/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Nineteen: Pentecost." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 319-332.

Rather early in Christian thought the feast of Pentecost, at the end of the seven weeks of the Paschal season, was considered an integral part of the entire package. Theologically the incarnation, passion, resurrection, ascension, and the coming of the Holy Spirit belong together. Daniélou observes that the chronology, rather than the theology, took over in the fourth century, dividing the celebration into distinct portions (Daniélou 1956, 319). While originally Pentecost was seen as the period of seven weeks following Easter, it later began to be observed starting on the last day of the period (Daniélou 1956, 320). Philo's observation was that the period of Pentecost (meaning fifty) began the day after Passover and concluded fifty days later. The feast was seen by Philo as one of thanksgiving and complete dependence on God who provides all we need (Daniélou 1956, 322).

Though there is evidence of a recognition of the Jewish feasts by Christians at an early time, the specific Christian liturgical interpretation of the Feast of Weeks is not strongly developed until Cyril of Jerusalem (Daniélou 1956, 322). He considered the feast as a culmination of the seven week period. The Paschal feast shows Christ in the lamb. The Pentecost feast shows him in the offering of first fruits (Daniélou 1956, 324).

Daniélou observes that early Christians were quick to note the symbolic significance of a week of weeks, 49 days, plus one. They tied it quickly to the Old Testament pattern of remission of debts and manumission of slaves every fiftieth year (Daniélou 1956, 324). From this concept, Clement of Alexandria and then Origen understood the number fifty to be symbolic of forgiveness (Daniélou 1956, 325). While Jewish authors took the one day added to the seven weeks as a symbol of the unity of God, Christians tended to view it in terms of an eighth day, the day of resurrection. This was the case as early as Basil and Athanasius (Daniélou 1956, 328).

Again, Daniélou recalls that the focus of Pentecost shifted in the fourth century to Pentecost Sunday, rather than the seven weeks preceding it (Daniélou 1956, 320). In the thought of Gregory Nazienzen it was the fiftieth day which was the special marker of hope, due to the coming of the Holy Spirit. The celebration would take place particularly at the third hour of the morning, remembering the time when the Holy Spirit came. This observance led to a commemoration of Moses' reception of the Law on Mount Sinai (Daniélou 1956, 331).

Who Is This King of Glory?

11/15/2021

11/15/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Eighteen: The Ascension." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 303-318.

The ascension, like the other celebrations of Christianity, was readily seen as both a recognition of something old and a prefiguring of something yet to come (Daniélou 1956, 303). Here the Psalms were frequently used, particularly three, which Daniélou treats in order.

Psalm 23 speaks of welcome to the King of Glory (Daniélou 1956, 304). The ascension of Christ and his reception back into the heavenly realms in glory was recognized by the earliest of the Fathers as a central sign of Christ's kingship. Irenaeus took the question of the Psalm, "Who is this king?" to be an angelic question, as they had known God the Son prior to his incarnation but wondered at his coming as a resurrected human (Daniélou 1956, 306). Numerous other Fathers carry on this theme of Christ appearing in a form unexpected by the angels.

Psalm 109 and its statements about the Messiah not being abandoned or suffering decay is anotehr passage frequently used in the context of the ascension (Daniélou 1956, 308). In particular the picture of Christ sitting at the right hand of the Father received attention from the Church Fathers. Daniélou particularly notes that the Fathers made significant connections between Psalm 109, 1 Corinthians 15, and many passages in Hebrews (Daniélou 1956, 310). A further important outworking of the ascension and the session of Christ is the sending of the Holy Spirit. Daniélou notes that this was, in the mind of the Fathers, directly related to world evangelism, as Jesus used this means to make witnesses to all nations (Daniélou 1956, 311).

Psalm 67 is also used in association with the Ascension. Applied to Jesus by Paul in Ephesians 4:7-11, it speaks of God's work of ascending and giving gifts (Daniélou 1956, 312). The theme of Christ conquering death and the devil, then ascending to give gifts to his followers became very common in partristic thought. Ideas of proper orientation in prayer and posture of looking for Christ's return were also linked to Psalm 67 (Daniélou 1956, 314).

Daniélou raises an important question, whether these interpretations of the Psalms are appropriate, since they diverge rather clearly from Judaic thought (Daniélou 1956, 315). He observes that the Christian tradition in antiquity always considered all the Psalms to be messianic in nature. For this reason, the liturgical use of those Psalms, though differing from Jewish understanding, was entirely consistent with Christian understanding. It also accords with the strongly typological interpretive processes of the time period (Daniélou 1956, 317). While more discussion is warranted, Daniélou considers the Fathers' work sound in this regard.

Easter, Central to Christianity

11/12/2021

11/12/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Seventeen: Easter." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 287-302.

Daniélou considers the paschal events to be at the center of Christian thought and practice. In this respect, the liturgy surrounding Easter should be expected to have elements of the entirety of Christianity (Daniélou 1956, 287). At the same time, the feast of Exodus 12 is very specific to its own context, the commemoration of the departure of the Jews from Egypt.

Jewish thought had already made serious consideration of the fact that the exodus came at springtime (Daniélou 1956, 288). Ths concept was adopted by the Christian Fathers, taking spring not to be "the memorial of creation, but thefigure of the Resurrection" (Daniélou 1956, 289). Eusebius makes the step of connecting the creation, the paschal feast, and the resurrection to one another as a full exposition of creation and redemption (Daniélou 1956, 290). In his work, all the figures of spring, including those of paganism, are seen as pointing to the reality in Christ. The line of interpretation is continued after Eusebius as well. Daniélou particularly describes Gregory Nazianzen drawing spring as a time showing God's glory, though not so much as the symbol of resurrection (Daniélou 1956, 291). Daniélou continues with notes on numerous authors, some of whom tie spring to resurrection, and some who do not.

The significance of the paschal lamb appears in many authors. Daniélou particularly notes the commentary based on the choosing of the sacrificial lamb five days before the sacrifice itself (Daniélou 1956, 293ff). Here the Fathers found the foreknowledge and choice of God, who prepared that Christ should be sacrificed at the appointed time. Further teaching relates the appointed time, or even, as the time symbolic of the end of the world (Daniélou 1956, 296).

The date of 14 Nisan was also significant to the Fathers. Not only is it the date of the equinox, but also of a full moon which rises as the sun sets, thus remaining light (Daniélou 1956, 297). It is therefore an appropriate time to reflect on the light of Christ and the separation of light from darkness (Daniélou 1956, 298). In later thought, as the moon was considered the queen of darkness and the dead, the fact that the moon phase waned after 14 Nisan was considered symbolic of Christ's victory over death (Daniélou 1956, 301). Daniélou concludes that the overarching pattern is that of the cycles of the natural world proving to be signs of the biblical realities (Daniélou 1956, 302).

The Eighth Day of the Week

11/11/2021

11/11/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Sixteen: The Eighth Day." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 262-286.

The imagery of the Lord's Day and its relationship to the first day of creation and the image of the eighth day became so prominent in early Christian observances that Daniélou devotes an entire chapter to it. Among the Fathers, he considers the Cappadocians, and particularly Basil the Great to be the pre-eminent commentators. Essential to their argument is the identity of the coming age as a day, rather than a long period of time in which something develops (Daniélou 1956, 263). In fact, Basil observed that periods of time, such as days, t ended to be referred to as static and singular events.

The ages, as Basil refers to them, are not closely tied to chronology. They differ in their character, but not necessarily in their time. In Daniélou's view, "history could not be more completely emptied of all significance: we are here in the midst of Hellenistic thought" (Daniélou 1956, 265). Basil ties the concept to the liturgy through association with the Lord's Day, i.e., the day of resurrection, and the Day of the Lord, i.e., the ushering in of eternity. The commemoration including the Eucharist looks to the eschatological age to come (Daniélou 1956, 266). This concept easily overcomes any attraction of the Hellenistic views hinted at by Origen. Daniélou continues by detailing the implications of the chronological symbiosis of the different ages and their emphases. Of great importance to these analyses is the distinction between a temporal and an eternal realm (Daniélou 1956, 273). In effect, the eighth day ushers us out of a world bound by time and chronology, into a world which is timeless (Daniélou 1956, 274).

In contrast to the East, Daniélou notes that the Western church "sought to find in the week a key to the succession of the ages (Daniélou 1956, 275). The seven day week then became a key to understanding seven millennia of earthly experience. This point of view is particularly found in Justin, Hippolytus, and Irenaeus. Augustine thus found it natural to consider a seventh millennium as a time of rest (Daniélou 1956, 276). Daniélou particularly illustrates the concept through analysis of sermons from Augustine. Augustine not only clearly understood the end of the world to be ushered in by around the year 1000, but he also saw patterns of seven or eight in the Scripture to be indicative of the complete work of God.

Augustine eventually rejected the literal form of millenarianism which looked for a visible thousand year reign of Chrsit on earth (Daniélou 1956, 282). He did, however, consider that he was in the sixth millennium, which would serve to usher in the endless day of rest of all God's people (Daniélou 1956, 283).

The Lord's Day, Not the Sabbath

11/10/2021

11/10/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Fifteen: The Lord's Day." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 242-261.

In contrast to a Sabbath observance, "as early in the second century, Ignatius of Antioch defined the Christian by the celebration of the kyriake" (Lord's Day) (Daniélou 1956, 242). Daniélou also observes that Pliny, in his letter to Trajan, knew that Christians gathered on a fixed day. The day of celebration, commemorating the day of resurrection, can be dated as early as the week after the resurrection. It quickly became the commemoration of the day (Daniélou 1956, 243).

Daniélou notes that a day of rest was perfectly common even in the pagan religions (Daniélou 1956, 243). In this way, the Jewish Sabbath, the pagan rest days, and the Christian Lord's Day were somewhat similar. However, the Christians quickly separated the day of rest from the day of worship, fixing Christian worship on Sunday (Daniélou 1956, 244). For a day of rest they joined with the calendar and customs of the surrounding culture. This did become easier within Roman territory when Constantine made the day of the sun, a time observed by pagans, a holiday. This rather naturally made the situation easier both for Christians and pagans (Daniélou 1956, 245).

At this point, Daniélou reminds us that the Christians saw the Sabbath as fulfilled in Christ. The Lord's Day, though it came to include rest, was not the Sabbath (Daniélou 1956, 246). The Fathers did not equate the two. The idea of a transfer of the Sabbath to the Lord's Day does appear in Origen (Contra Celsum), but the context is that the Jews, having failed to hold to the Sabbath command, are now presented with a day for worship and rest on the Lord's Day rather than the Sabbath (Daniélou 1956, 247). The fact that the Day of Resurrection was also the first day of the week, also the day of creation, was not at all lost on the Fathers. The symbolism informed a good deal of teaching (Daniélou 1956, 249). The first day of the week was recognized as the day when the work of God is taken up. It was seen as the beginning, rather than a Sabbath end of creation and work (Daniélou 1956, 251).

In addition to a day of resurrection, Daniélou observes that some of the Fathers understood the first day of creation as the time of generation of the Word (Daniélou 1956, 252). He does acknowledge the dangers of falling into a subordinationist position.

A concept of a planetary week was coming to Western thought from the East around the time of the start of Chrsitianity (Daniélou 1956, 253). In this model, the first day of the week was Sunday, the dies solis. The resemblance does not in itself seem purposeful, but by the fourth century the themes were often taken to coincide and to bear symbolic importance. Sunday was the first day of creation and the occasion for the creation of light.

From an early time, as evidenced by Barnabas and Justin, the day of the Lord was also seen as the "eighth" day (Daniélou 1956, 255). The eighth day concept appears in 2 Enoch 33:7, where it is symbolic of new creation (Daniélou 1956, 256). However, Daniélou notes the idea was never well developed in Judaism, but only in Christian thought. Christians did see this as a difference which set Christianity apart from Judaism (Daniélou 1956, 257).

Not to be outdone by orthodoxy, Daniélou notes that Gnostic thought created elaborate systems of typology for the number eight and the eighth day (Daniélou 1956, 258). He illustrates several in brief terms.

What to Do with the Sabbath?

11/8/2021

11/8/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Fourteen: The Mystery of the Sabbath." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 222-241.

Daniélou observes that as the biblical records inform the sacramental acts of the Church, they can also be expected to inform the other occasions of the Church, specifically the weekly and annual calendar of worship (Daniélou 1956, 222). He therefore begins with comments on weekly worship, then moves in subsequent chapters to the prominent feasts on the calendar.

The weekly worship gathering has some roots in the Old Testament Sabbath, which serves as a day of rest and a foreshadowing of the person and work of Christ (Daniélou 1956, 223). In the New Testament it is made clear that Jesus is the day of rest for the Christian. Particularly, in the Fathers, "the true Sabbath, the true anapausis, is not to cease from physical work, but to cease from sinning" (Daniélou 1956, 224). Daniélou illustrates the concept of Christ both freeing people from sin and being greater than the Sabbath commands through his purposeful violations of the Sabbath as interpreted by the Jews (Daniélou 1956, 225). The Fathers continued to interpret these events as evidence that Chrsit himself was the true Sabbath. Daniélou illustrates biblical statements of Christ as the fulfillment of the Sabbath in some detail, without significant reference to the Fathers.

A problematic issue, then, is how Christians would view a Sabbath. It was fulfilled in Christ, yet its observance was based on texts recognized as the authoritative word of God (Daniélou 1956, 230). Daniélou briefly discusses solutions including maintaining the Sabbath and denying that it bore any significance. Justin Martyr, however, pioneered a stream of interpretation which was followed later. The Sabbath commands allowed for exceptions, such as circumcision, which ultimately pointed to God's grace revealed in Christ (Daniélou 1956, 231). Further, God never takes a day off from his work of governing the world (Daniélou 1956, 232). It is therefore not a requirement that is inescapably binding to all people in all times. Rather, it is a sign to Israel of their need to trust God and submit to his merciful provision for them (Daniélou 1956, 233). The coming of Christ marked the end of this provisional economy and ushered in a new era of grace (Daniélou 1956, 234). The true rest becomes a rest from sin. This is accomplished as we trust in Christ (Daniélou 1956, 235).

By this line of argumentation, the observance of the Sabbath as a day of rest can be seen both as a necessary practice for those who look forward to Christ and as something fulfilled in Christ and no longer binding upon the Christian as a necessary practice (Daniélou 1956, 238). It looks forward to our rest from sin, both in this temporal life and in eternity.

New Testament Fulfillments and Types

11/5/2021

11/5/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Thirteen: New Testament Types." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 208-221.

The Gospels, in Daniélou's view, are written on two different levels. "The realities of the life of Christ in His earthly existence become also figures of His glorious life in the Church, particularly as this is expressed in her sacramental life" (Daniélou 1956, 208). The New Testament is full of allusions to the Sacraments. In this chapter Daniélou examines two such events - the pool of Bethesda and the wedding at Cana (Daniélou 1956, 209).

The healing at Bethesda is easily seen as a type of baptism, and even becomes an aspect of some prayers to consecrate baptismal water (Daniélou 1956, 209). Daniélou takes the significance of the miracle to be a demonstration that Jesus provides forgiveness of sins, and that he does it through baptism (Daniélou 1956, 210). In contrast to baptism, the pool only brings healing to one person at a time, and that, unpredictably. In baptism all who are washed are cleansed from sin, no matter when they pass through the water (Daniélou 1956, 211). In the case of the pool of Bethesda, an angel prepares the water. In baptism, God or his servants prepare others for baptism.

The wedding feast at Cana of Galilee certainly suggests the eucharist as part of "the theme of the eschatological wedding" (Daniélou 1956, 215). Daniélou first considers the imagery of the wedding guests from Matthew 22:3, in which, though the feast is open to all, the one person who refuses to dress appropriately is thrown out (Daniélou 1956, 216). Again, there are connections to Psalm 22 and to the Canticle of Canticles. The concept of the eschatological feast is very strong. The procession to baptism, then the reception of the eucharist after baptism, is seen to be related to a marriage procession and feast, as well as to the procession of the elect to their heavenly home in the last day (Daniélou 1956, 219).

The wedding at Cana of Galilee, where Jesus turned water into wine, is full of symbolism of the eschaton. Not only is there a mention of a third day, parallel to Christ's time in the tomb, but there is water of purification and the wine which easily makes for a sacramental picture (Daniélou 1956, 220).

The Canticle, Baptism, and Marriage

11/4/2021

11/4/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Twelve: The Canticle of Canticles." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 191-207.

Daniélou recognizes that the relationship of God and his people in Exodus serves as a figurative description of marriage. However, that relationship and earthly marriage relationships are in themselves a picture of the relationship of God and his people in His eternal kingdom. This draws Daniélou's discussion to the Canticle of Canticles, which may depict the future marriage of eternity (Daniélou 1956, 191). Tertullian sees baptism as the entry into this eternal marriage, while Cyril of Jerusalem sees the Eucharist as the operative element (Daniélou 1956, 192).

Daniélou walks through the order of baptism, describing each element in order as interpreted by the Fathers in terms of the Canticle (Daniélou 1956, 193ff). Entrance into the place of baptism is compared to entry into the marital bed changer. The baptism itself may be related to the numerous mentions of washing found in the Canticle, also frequently associated with a flock of sheep, taken to represent Christians (Daniélou 1956, 196). The clothing of the newly baptized witha white garment is taken to be foreshadowed in the statements of the Canticle describing putting on special clothes (Daniélou 1956, 198). This can be understood both as being clothed with Christ to live a Christian life on earth and as being dressed in everlasting glory as an eschatological hope. The eucharist is thought to be a temporal fulfillment of the eternal heavenly feast, which in turn is prefigured by the Canticle's mention of a banquet (Daniélou 1956, 203).

Psalm 23 and Eucharist

11/3/2021

11/3/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Eleven: Psalm XXII." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 177-190.

Daniélou notes that Psalm 22 is alluded to a great deal in ancient catechesis (Daniélou 1956, 177). I observe that the references he then uses to illustrate are drawn from Psalm 23 ("The Lord is my shepherd") rather than 22 ("My God, My God, Why have you forsaken me"). The statements refer to a table set before us and an anointing with oil. Cyril of Jerusalem considers the Psalm to be related to Christian initiation. Of some interest is the fact that Cyril seems to assume the catechumen would be familiar with the text already, so would only need it to be explained. Ambrose and others made the same assumption (Daniélou 1956, 178). The texts appear to have been sung as part of the liturgy, and would be well known. However, in Daniélou's view, the meaning of the Psalm and other passages would not be explained until the time of baptism (Daniélou 1956, 179).

Not only did the Fathers see the Psalm as a narrative of the events of baptism and eucharist, but they also made a typological interpretation of the Psalm (Daniélou 1956, 180). For instance, the green pastures would represent feeding on the Word of God. Danielou reviews the allegorical typological interpetations in some detail. A recurring theme is reference to the chalice as "inebriating." Daniélou notes that "the inebriation given by the Euchrastic wine is a 'sober inebriation,' and we know that this is a traditional expression for denoting mystical states, found for the first time in Philo" (Daniélou 1956, 184). The Fathers suggest a spiritual satisfaction and wisdom received in the wine of the chalice.

Daniélou observes that the image of the green pastures is closely related to "the baptized as being sheep branded with the mark of Christ" (Daniélou 1956, 186). As early as Origen we have imagery of shepherds, pastors, people who are faithfully kept, and those who are the prey of the bad shepherds. The good shepherd thus becomes the subject of much artwork from early Christianity (Daniélou 1956, 187).

Daniélou concludes that the material in Psalm 22 provides a fitting and meaningful summary of the Christian life in Word and Sacraments.

The Paschal Lamb as Symbol of Eucharist

11/1/2021

11/1/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Ten: The Paschal Lamb." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 162-176.

Daniélou observes that "there are certain especially important biblical passages in which the whole process of Christian initiation is prefigured. These are Chapter XII of Exodus, Psalm XXIII, and the Canticle of Canticles" (Daniélou 1956, 162). These three readings are the focus in the Paschal liturgy. They are therefore worthy of special examination. After all, it was during the paschal vigil that Christian initiation took place.

The centrality of figures of a destroying angel sparing the homes marked with blood should not come as a surprise to us. Yet Daniélou considers the relationship to baptism very improtant as well, noting that baptism serves to destroy the sinner, the very work of the avenging angel of the Passover (Daniélou 1956, 163). It really makes sense of the unified understanding of death and resurrection themes. The anointing of the doorposts with blood likewise resembles the sign of the cross on the forehead, given at chrismation (Daniélou 1956, 164).

Comparisons of this nature come about by the time of Justin martyr (Daniélou 1956, 164). Daniélou relates the connections of the Passover and the liturgy as they appear in a number of early witnesses. The sacraments are regularly seen as a Christian fulfillment and continuation of the passover. Specifically, the marking of the sign of the cross after baptism is tied directly to the marking of the doors with blood at the Passover (Daniélou 1956, 167).

Daniélou also finds an important eucharistic element in the actual eating of the Paschal lamb (Daniélou 1956, 168). The oldest traditions tie the meal to Christ's circumcision or passion, or possibly to the Christian's spiritual life, but later traditions added symbolism of the Eucharist. Daniélou traces the eucharistic interpretation through Hippolytus and Cyril of Alexandria (Daniélou 1956, 169). The Paschal meal gathers God's people to eat the lamb, which is considered fulfilled in Christ the Lamb of God, who suffered and died (Daniélou 1956, 170). Daniélou continues by describing some of the allegorical interpretations added to the setting as time progressed.

Daniélou observes important characteristics of the typology of the Eucharist. First, it is based on New Testament figures (Daniélou 1956, 172). The setting of the Last Supper fits a paschal meal. Jesus is presented in the New Testament as the true lamb of God. Second, it is based on the Passion of Christ as the fulfillment of Passover. The unleavened bread is a particularly significant part of the observance. Daniélou notes the important symbolism of leavening as indicative of sin in the New Testament (Daniélou 1956, 173).

Foreshadowing of the Eucharist

10/29/2021

10/29/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Nine: The Figures of the Eucharist." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 142-161.

Daniélou begins his discussion of figures of the Eucharist with a description of the prayer of thanksgiving at the start of the consecration (Daniélou 1956, 142). The text of Apostolic Constitutions book eight describes it in detail. Daniélou notes that only some parts of it remain to this day in the preface of the consecration.

The prayer of consecration, because it makes reference to Old and New Testament figures, suggests we look at the Old Testament for foreshadowing of the Sacrament (Daniélou 1956, 143). Daniélou finds four particularly important episodes: "the sacrifice of Melchisedech, the manna of Exodus, the meal of the Covenant, the Paschal meal" (Daniélou 1956, 143).

The offering of bread and wine by Melchisedech, who is already easily taken as a type of Christ, has long been taken as significant of the eucharist (Daniélou 1956), 143). This is likely an intentional move by Jesus in selecting bread and wine for the purpose, as well as an application made as early as the letter to the Hebrews (Daniélou 1956, 145). The New Testament certainly ties Jesus and Melchizedek together, showing him as the one greater than Abraham. Eusebius also particularly ties the New Testament to the Hebrew sacrificial system (Daniélou 1956, 146).

Daniélou also points to the Exodus account of manna in the wilderness as a symbol of the eucharist (Daniélou 1956, 147). Some Fathers also consider the giving of water from the rock of Horeb to be related to communion. The manna is a figure which is relatively easy to grasp. The water is a miraculous drink which came to Israel from the rock which was considered to be Christ (Daniélou 1956, 148). Daniélou illustrates these connections at some length.

A third suggestion of the Eucharist is found in a covenant meal, found in Jewish temple liturgy, expressing union with God and participation in the covenant people of God (Daniélou 1956, 153). This meal of fellowshipo, according to Daniélou, represented the typical Jewish understanding of the many Old Testament restoration narratives. He illustrates it from numerous canonical and non-canonical passages. The meals of Christ recorded in the Gospels have regularly been understood as a fulfillment of these Old Testament prophecies (Daniélou 1956, 155). The eschatoloigical banquet may also be seen as the means of Gentiles entering the kingdom of God. Daniélou observes the relatively universalistic nature of the banquet descriptions from the Gospels (Daniélou 1956, 157).

Eucharist by the 4th Century

10/28/2021

10/28/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Eight: The Eucharistic Rites." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 127-141.

Daniélou considers the eucharist apart from the events normally preceding it, primarily because the catechetical materials we have discuss it in the context of a first eucharist for those who have just been baptized (Daniélou 1956, 127). In practice, on a weekly basis, the fore-Mass would come first.

The eucharist can be divided into three parts: the offertory, the consecration, and the distribution (Daniélou 1956, 127). Within the Sacrament, Daniélou finds "that two chief themes constantly recur in explaining the primary significance of the sacrament: the Mass is a sacramental representation of the sacrifice of the Cross, the Mass is a sacramental participation in the heavenly liturgy" (Daniélou 1956, 128). As the newly baptized enter into the sancruary, they are being ushered in to the presence of the divine work. Psalms 42 and 22 were traditionally sung during this procession (Daniélou 1956, 129).

The preparation of the altar received explanation, particularly by Pseudo-Dionysius (488A), who saw the altar as taking the place of Jesus himself, thus being prepared with proper reverence and arrangement (Daniélou 1956, 130). The deacons who assist at the altar are then taken as symbols of angels who surround Christ's throne (Daniélou 1956, 131). Offrings which have been prepared are presented at the altar. Theodore of Mopsuestia, the only author to provide a clear interpretation of this rite, understands it to represent the items brought to Christ in his burial. For this reason, he says (15:25), the deacons cannot be symbolic of the Jews, who were guilty in Jesus' execution, but must represent angelic messengers (Daniélou 1956, 132). Interestingly enough, Theodore's description indicates that the deacons lay the cloths on the altar at the time of the rite itself, as burial cloths for Jesus. They then stand by, as the angels attending Jesus' body. There follows a ceremonial washing of the hands and the kiss of peace, sometimes in reversed order (Daniélou 1956, 133).

The eucharist itself begins with the great anaphora, in which the faithful lay their lives down and lift their hearts before the Lord (Daniélou 1956, 134), The Trisagion is chanted, proclaiming God's holy nature. This all directs the hearts and minds of the faithful to the presence of the heavenly, possibly considering themselves "in some way transferred to heaven" (Daniélou 1956, 135).

In the consecration, Daniélou asserts the catechists all agree the bread and wine becomes the body and blood of Christ (Daniélou 1956, 136). These are uniformly considered to be the real body and blood of Christ, the sacrifice offered by Christ, once for all, and the same sacrifice presented again and again through the anamnesis (Daniélou 1956, 137). The one heavenly sacrifice thus becomes visible and available for the faithful to partake. Finally, the bread and wine are shown to the congregation and the bread is broken.

The broken bread and the wine poured out are distributed as a participation in an eschatological feast which nourishes for eternal life (Daniélou 1956, 140). It is most clearly a participation in Christ's death, but also a realization that the resurrected Jesus is alive in heaven.
(Daniélou 1956,

Chrismation and Confirmation

10/27/2021

10/27/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Seven: Confirmation." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 114-126.

Daniélou acknowledges that the rite of confirmation has origins which are obscure (Daniélou 1956, 114). It is somehow related to a giving of the Holy Spirit, though that is confessed to have happened already in baptism. However, it seems tied to an anointing with oil, which is the point Daniélou uses for the entry into his discussion.

The Old Testament particularly views chrismation as the means to consecrate priests and kings. It is also clearly a part of messianic typology, as the Messiah is "the anointed one" (Daniélou 1956, 115). In this regard it points both to the Christ and to the Christian. Tertullian (De Baptismo 7) connects it directly to baptism and the anointing of the Holy Spirit (Daniélou 1956, 116). Cyril and Ambrose follow Tertullian in making this connection. Daniélou observes that Cyril in particular describes the Christian as somehow serving as Christ, having received the same anointing of the Holy Spirit in the chrismation which followed baptism (Daniélou 1956, 117).

Daniélou comments on the remarkable nature of Cyril's explanation. "First of all, it states clearly what a sacrament is: a real participation in the grace of Christ, by a sacramental imitation of his life. And, secondly, it shows how this structure applies as well to the sacrament of Confirmation as to that of Baptism" (Daniélou 1956, 118). The anointing with oil places the Holy Spirit on the believer, not to be washed off. The Confirmation was thus seen as "a new outpouring of the Spirit, having for its object to bring to perfection the spiritual energies called forth in the soul by Baptism" (Daniélou 1956, 119). It is therefore more akin to sanctification than to justification.

The anointing oil, to Daniélou as to the fourth century Fathers, becomes the element by which gifts of the Holy Spirit are imparted (Daniélou 1956, 122). The oil is a special perfumed compound, specially blessed and used only for chrismation. Those who have not been baptized never receive this oil. It was seen as a special means of imparting divinity to the Christian (Daniélou 1956, 124).

Elijah and the Jordan River as Types of Baptism

10/25/2021

10/25/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Six: Types of Baptism: Elias and the Jordan." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 99-113.

Elijah's miraculous crossing of the Jordan figures as a type of baptism, especially in eastern catechetical and liturgical works (Daniélou 1956, 99). The image is joined with other situations in which Elijah or Elisha appear with water as well. The material was generally not associated with Easter but with Epiphany and the baptism of Christ (Daniélou 1956, 100). Here the important rite is the consecration of holy water, rather than the actual baptism of converts. Therefore, the emphasis is on the purifying use of water.

The Jordan is of great importance as we consider baptism. Joshua, bearing the same name as Jesus, crossed the Jordan and began his work and ministry. This foreshadowed Jesus' baptism and his crossing of the Jordan so as to raise Lazarus from the dead (Daniélou 1956, 102). Daniélou illustrates the statements of the Fathers at some length.

In speaking of the crossing of the Jordan, Daniélou has primarily spoken of Joshua. However, Elijah is also of great importance (Daniélou 1956, 105). The New Testament describes Jesus as the fulfiller of the typology found in Elijah. Daniélou observes this is particularly the case as Luke's Gospel is concerned (Daniélou 1956, 106). In numerous placese Elijah serves to foreshadow Christ, including in a threefold reception of water, in the falling fire of God and in his rising to heaven (Daniélou 1956, 107). The more we examine the life and works of Elijah, the more roles he seems to play. Elisha, as the successor to Elijah, carrys on a number of the prominent roles (Daniélou 1956, 109-110). Daniélou finds many of these episodes to pertain directly to the power of baptism.

Crossing the Red Sea as a Type of Baptism

10/22/2021

10/22/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Five: Types of Baptism: The Crossing of the Red Sea." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 86-98.

Like the Deluge, Daniélou observes that the crossing of the Red Sea is focused on the destructive force of water. It is also one of the most frequently used types of baptism (Daniélou 1956, 86). Yet the time of Passover and the crossing of the Red Sea also corresponds with the time of the first eucharist, adding a layer of symbolic importance (Daniélou 1956, 87).

The crossing of the Red Sea is a strong symbol of God's victory for his people (Daniélou 1956, 87). The enemies of God are destroyed in the water, just as we see sin being drowned in the baptismal water (Daniélou 1956, 88). The slavery to sin is broken and a new life is ushered in. Baptism is thus seen more in terms of deliverance and creation than in terms of a washing for purification (Daniélou 1956, 89). The fourth century writers are largely focused on baptism as water which rescues from the enemies (Daniélou 1956, 90).

Other themes then cluster around that of deliverance. The pillar of cloud in the wilderness is seen as Jesus' presence, also appearing at the Anunciation, the Transfiguration, and Ascension (Daniélou 1956, 91). Daniélou concludes that the Fathers regularly attempted to make their interpretations, allegorical though they were, on a solid foundation. He illustrates this with a number of examples of their interpretation of the Red Sea and the cloud. The reading may be of assistance to someone who wishes to gain a deeper understanding of the interpretive thought processes of early Christian leaders.

Creation and Deluge as Types of Baptism

10/21/2021

10/21/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Four: The Types of Baptism: Creation and the Deluge." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 70-85.

Daniélou visits the Old Testament types of baptism, observing that they were at the forefront of catechesis in the patristic period. Tertullian's De Baptismo enumerates the types, and it is followed in turn by Didymus of Alexandria, Cyril, and Ambrose (Daniélou 1956, 70). The types serve in the Fathers' writings to demonstrate that baptism has always ben practiced in Christianity with a very paticular meaning. The particular meaning is explained by the consideration of the Old Testament passages (Daniélou 1956, 71).

The water found at creation is normally the first type presented in catechesis (Daniélou 1956, 71). Because there is a first creation and a promise of a new creation in Christ, the Fathers sought out a connection, which was water. The waters of creation find a regenerative continuation in baptism (Daniélou 1956, 72). Tertullian takes the waters both to give life and to be blessed y the Holy Spirit (de baptismo ch. 2). The concept, from Genesis 1, of the waters bringing forth the sea creatures suggested to Ambrose that there was a direct parallel to the water of baptism bringing Christians to life (Daniélou 1956, 74).

Water is not only seen as life-giving but also as destructive. "The Deluge is one of the types of Baptism most frequently cited by the Fathers and, as we shall see, one of the most obvious" (Daniélou 1956, 75). The conception of water as destructive ties it well to the death of Christ. The destruction of the sinful world and the new birth of the human race through Noah serves as a symbol of Christ's death and resurrection as well as our old life being put to death so as to be replaced by a new life in Christ (Daniélou 1956, 77).

Peter's explanation of baptism, viewing it as an antitype of the flood, is expanded in the Fathers, with attention being paid to the significant number of eight people on the ark, with comparison to the eighth day as the day of resurrection (Daniélou 1956, 78). The image of eight is applied to salvation not only based on the eight survivors on the ark of 1 Peter 2, but also in the eight generations from Adam to Noah, described in terms of judgment in 2 Peter 2 (Daniélou 1956, 80).

The dove, as a symbol of the Holy Spirit, present as a messenger of good news to Noah and present at Jesus' baptism, also becomes a type of baptism (Daniélou 1956, 82). The ark, for Tertullian, and even for Irenaeus, becomes a figure of the Church, though Daniélou does not consider this to fit into any scriptural categories (Daniélou 1956, 83).

The Sign of the Cross

10/20/2021

10/20/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Three: The Sphragis." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 54-69.

The sphragis, or marking the recipient of baptism with the sign of the cross, is said by Basil to go back to the apostolic practice (Daniélou 1956, 54). Daniélou finds the timing of this marking of the baptizand to differ, at times, but always to be considered very important. It serves as the seal of baptism, the mark which indicates the Christian belongs to God. Daniélou remarks on the twofold interpretation of the seal, as it can indicate either belonging to the flock of God or being a soldier in Goid's army (Daniélou 1956, 56).

Because the sign of the cross serves as a mark of ownership, numerous authors used language of protection to describe it. Just as a sheep with a brand is protected by its owner or shepherd, so a Christian marked with the cross is under the protection of God (Daniélou 1956, 56-57). Daniélou observes that the participants in a military unit receive protection similar to that given by a shepherd to sheep. The members find their identity as they have received the sign of belonging (Daniélou 1956, 58).

Daniélou comments on the patristic understanding of baptism and the imposition of the cross as something which is feared by demonic forces (Daniélou 1956, 59). The Christian belongs to a Lord who has conquered Satan and will not allow his people to be overcome.

The sphragis was also used as a mark of a slave, either imposed by a master or, often, self-imposed by the slave as a sign of loyalty. Daniélou observes that this is an additional interpretation often applied to the sign of the cross (Daniélou 1956, 60). The Christian, as the one who bore the mark of God, was encouraged to live in light of that mark, the cross, and to mark himself with it regularly, remembering to whom he belonged (Daniélou 1956, 61). Daniélou details two accounts from early Christianity of the marking of the cross as an effectual means of rejecting demonic attack. These are in the Life of St. Antony and the Life of St. Gregory Thaumaturgus (Daniélou 1956, 62).

Daniélou further notes that Cyril (XXXIII, 513A) ties a sphragis of Abraham, circumcision, to a baptism in the Holy Spirit (Daniélou 1956, 63). This comment of Cyril serves to joion baptism both to the seal of entry into God's chosen people, but also to a spiritual indwelling of the Holy Spirit. It also makes sense of Paul's language which tends to equate circumcision and baptism (Daniélou 1956, 64). In baptism, then, the cross of Christ is applied to Paul, so he bears the marks of Christ in his body (Daniélou 1956, 65). There is, then, a connection for Paul of circumcision and baptism, but also a connection between a sphragis (baptism? the sign of the cross?) and the Holy Spirit. This relationship is taken over into patristic thought by Cyril of Jerusalem (Daniélou 1956, 66).

Because of the nature of circumcision and its relation to baptism and the sign of the cross, the sphragis was seen as indelible (Daniélou 1956, 68). The Christian's eternal life could not be taken away. Daniélou sees this conclusion as the seed of sacramental interpretation of baptism, an act and marking which cannot be undone.

Baptism as Entry into God's Kingdom

10/18/2021

10/18/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter Two: The Baptismal Rite." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 35-53.

Daniélou observe that the catechetical preparation, though very important, is done for those who are still outside the Church. It is not until the baptism itself that the person actually enters the church body (Daniélou 1956, 35). Cyril of Jerusalem described it as an entrance from the vestibule into the king's palace (Procatechesis XXXIII, 333A). Daniélou notes that we have at least one third century baptistry which features artistic depictions of the Fall on one side and Christ welcoming his people on the other side (Daniélou 1956, 36). The shape was often an octagon, with the number eight serving as a symbol of the resurrection (Daniélou 1956, 37).

The candidate, led into the baptistry, is stripped of his clothing, symbolic of taking off the old man (Daniélou 1956, 37). It may also serve as a symbolic identification with Christ, who was stripped before being crucified. Both symbols are used by Cyril (Daniélou 1956, 38). Gregory of Nyssa compares the stripping to the covering given to Adam, garments of skin, which required death. Again, it is a return to the nakedness of creation (Daniélou 1956, 39). Theodore of Mopsuestia further compares it to a removal of the fig leaves which Adam and Eve used to cover themselves.

Following the removal of the clothes, there is anointing with oil, symbolic of the richness of God and the power of Christ's purity (Daniélou 1956, 40). It is also considered a sign of God's healing and strengthening power. The metaphor of struggle and battle is carried out through the Easter vigil, as it has been in progress throughout Lent (Daniélou 1956, 41).

In some places, the water used for the baptism itself would be blessed, indicating that water by itself would not cleanse from sin (Daniélou 1956, 42). The old man would enter the water and the new man would emerge. Again, Cyril finds a parallel to Christ, this time in his death and resurrection (Daniélou 1956, 43). The theme of death, burial, and resurrection is very common in early Christian understanding of baptism. Daniélou discusses and illustrates this at some length.

An additional piece of symbolism in baptism is that of birth. Daniélou notes that this theme, of the Church as mother giving birth to children, was most likely developed in African thought (Daniélou 1956, 47-48).

After the baptism, the believer is clothed with a pure white garment (Daniélou 1956, 49). This symbolizes the new, the pure, and God's grace. Again we see echoes of Adam's purity having been stripped away and then his being clothed by God's hand. The clothing is seen as a robe of glory, provided by God (Daniélou 1956, 51).

Preparation for Baptism

10/15/2021

10/15/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Chapter One: The Preparation." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956, pp. 19-34.

Daniélou first discusses baptism as the start of the Christian life. By the fourth century, preparation for baptism normally started at the beginning of Lent (Daniélou 1956, 19). At that time, the routine catechesis became more intense, creating a deliberate forty day move toward baptism. The candidate and others would be questioned and either move toward baptism or be temporarily removed from the list (Daniélou 1956, 20).

According to Daniélou, Theodore of Mopsuestia allegorized the process, making the forty days' time a parallel to Christ's temptation in the wilderness (Daniélou 1956), 21). The candidate is to spend the forty days trying to escape from Satan's power. The writing of the names of the candidates in a registry is symbolic of God's writing the names of his people in the Book of Life (Daniélou 1956, 22).

The forty days of prepration for baptism involved a daily church service, first thing in the morning (Daniélou 1956, 23). The candidates would receive exorcism. Daniélou finds this as an indication that baptism was seen as a culmination of a genuine spiritual battle with life and death consequences (Daniélou 1956, 24). After the daily exorcism, the bishop would engage in teaching for the catechumens but also for any other Christians who wished to attend (Daniélou 1956, 25). The teaching typically reviewed all the Scriptures, culminating in a study of "the Symbol" (The Apostles' Creed). At the end of the Lenten period, in the Easter Vigil, the renunciation of Satan would occur, setting the candidates in a position to be publicly dedicated to Christ (Daniélou 1956, 26). Daniélou describes the renunciation in some detail. Particularly the specific denials of Satan, the corresponding acknowledgement of Christ, and the orientation of the candidate, facing east or west, has drawn interpretive comments over the years.

Unfortunately, the foruc os Daniélou's work is significantly later than my focus. The scant evidence we have from the period of about 30-150 A.D. is a hindrance.

Typology and Understanding of Sacraments

10/14/2021

10/14/21
Scholarly Reflections

Daniélou, Jean, S.J. "Introduction." The Bible and the Liturgy." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1956.

Daniélou sets out to analyze the actual significance of the sacraments as they contribute to Christian worship, hoping to create a greater understanding of the value of this part of the Christian life (Daniélou 1956, 3). He considers the typological nature of biblical interpretation to be an essential feature of our study, noting that Old Testament ideas serve as the foundation for an early Christian understanding of sacraments and liturgy (Daniélou 1956, 4). The typological view taken by Daniélou implies an eschatological view of the work of Christ in the Church. He considers the sacraments to bear a miraculous efficacy (Daniélou 1956, 5).

The sacraments contain both a visible sign, such as water, and a particular significance of the symbol. The sacraments, coming ultimately from Jewish roots, bore significance within Jewish liturgy already when they were adopted by Christians (Daniélou 1956, 6). As an example of the importance of the significance, Daniélou considers baptism, which is routinely treated as reminiscent of the Flood and the crossing of the Red Sea. The significance of the water, then, would seem to be that of death and destruction rather than washing. However, water is also seen as a beginning of life. These ideas may come together in baptism (Daniélou 1956, 7). Daniélou sees that later symbolic accretions may have served to obscure an original interpretation of a sacrament. Finding the original interpretation is helpful in the ongoing accurate elaboration of theology (Daniélou 1956, 8).

The first through third centuries provide us with little testimony, which is problematic in my particular interest area. Daniélou suggests as the best sources we look first to the Fourth Gospel, then Hippolytus' Traditio Apostolica (Daniélou 1956, 8). Tertullian's De Baptismo could be of use, but due to the secretive nature of the eucharistic celebration we do not find corresponding work related to communion. The paschal concept, however, appears in Melito of Sardis' Homily on the Passion (ed. Campbell Bonner, Studies and Documents 1940) (Daniélou 1956, 9). In Danielou's view this takes us up to the fourth century and out of the time period of my immediate interest.

Daniélou discusses the fourth century works of Cyril of Jerusalem and, toward the end of the century, of Ambrose of Milan (Daniélou 1956, 10-11). These works particularly discuss the orderly reception of baptism and the significance of the water. At the very end of the fourth century, Theodore of Mposuestia gave his Catechetical Homilies, which we have in Syriac (Daniélou 1956, 12). Theodore does use typology, but , unlike the earlier authors, he does not use figures from the Old TEstament other than Adam (Daniélou 1956, 13).

Daniélou's next stop is in the sixth century, with Peudo-Dionysius, where little attention is given to an explanation of the physical elements but more to the symbolic importance of the overal sacramental events (Daniélou 1956, 15). Daniélou then mentions numerous homilies and treatises which he considers to be of lesser importance (Daniélou 1956, 16-17). Though these are later than I would like, they may prove to be of some use.