Category: Lessing-2014 - Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry

The Man of Faith

3/13/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
3/13/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 16, “Job” pp. 279-296.

The book of Job consists of a challenge on two levels. Between Job and his friends the challenge is to find the source of Job’s suffering. Between God and Satan the challenge is whether Job will serve God regardless of suffering. “These earthly and heavenly conflicts center around one question: Do people serve God because of rewards or out of loving gratitude?” (Lessing 2014, 279).

The events and composition of Job traditionally lead scholars to a date around the time of Moses (Lessing 2014, 279). Lessing observes genealogical information and the fact that Job offers sacrifices on behalf of his family. Much critical scholarship will place composition later, during the Babylonian exile (Lessing 2014, 281). Job shows a breakdown of the seemingly orderly view of the universe from Moses’ time. This could be consistent with a people in captivity.

The book contains three cycles of speeches of Job and his friends (Lessing 2014, 282). However, Lessing sees a “repeated use of fourfold groupings” as central to the actual structure. There are strong elements of history, wisdom, and songs of lament in the book (Lessing 2014, 285).

While many approach Job to ask why the righteous suffer, Lessing asks, “Why do the righteous serve God?” (Lessing 2014, 285). Even though Job suffers, he serves God. The false faith says we serve God to get something. True faith says we serve God because he justifies us by faith and gives eternal life (Lessing 2014, 287).

Job’s desire is to have a mediator between God and man (Lessing 2014, 287). He would like to have his righteousness declared in terms that all would see and understand (Lessing 2014, 288). Lessing takes this to be the work of one mediator, as opposed to Job’s friends who seem to expect an angelic group.

God’s silence through much of the book troubles Job (Lessing 2014, 290). Though Job would like to question God, in the end, it is God who questions Job. He does not explain suffering. He simply shows his wisdom and power. He is the God of all creation, including creatures which cannot be controlled (Lessing 2014, 291). This power of God moves Job to repent. God cannot be accused. He is just, not Job (Lessing 2014, 292).

Lessing notes that Job is the “exemplary man of faith” in the Old Testament. Jesus is the true fulfillment in the New Testament (Lessing 2014, 293). Jesus is the mediator Job hopes for. Job’s salvation was always by God’s mercy and grace.

God's Care among the Pagans

3/6/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
3/6/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 15, “Esther” pp. 267-278.

Esther is a challenging book. Lessing notes that it is not uniformly part of early Old Testament canons, that the text seems secular in some ways, and that the Septuagint adds instances of prayers (Lessing 2014, 267). The book is formally anonymous. It shows knowledge consistent with that of “a Judean living in Persia” and seems to have been written long enough after the events of 473 that they were established customs (Lessing 2014, 267). The events date from 483-473 B.C. It is centered in Susa, wher Persian kings spent the winter (Lessing 2014, 268). Lessing explains the names Xerxes and Ahasuaerus as attempts at the Persian Khshayarshan (Lessing 2014, 268). The events revolve around Esther, her cousin Mordecai, and the Persian court.

The text speaks to the troubles endured by Judeans who are living in Persia. Those who are observant, such as Esther and Mordecai, are secretive about their background and religion (Lessing 2014, 269). God is working in Esther, but he works behind the scenes (Lessing 2014, 270).

There are two Greek versions of Esther. One is significantly longer than the other. Lessing does not suggest which might be older (Lessing 2014, 371). He does summarize the additional material.

Lessing notes that there is scholarly debate over whether Esther is an historical account. Names and records are incomplete and varied (Lessing 2014, 272). While it is not clear that Esther was a real queen of Persia during the period, Lessing does not find it as a difficulty. She quite well could be entirely historical (Lessing 2014, 273).

In the book of Esther there are many different celebrations. Lessing notes that God is using each of the celebrations to move events along (Lessing 2014, 274). The veryday events of life may be used by God. Lessing also notes a recurring theme of the conflict between Israel and the Amalekites. Haman, the enemy of the Jews, was related to the Amalekite king Agag. Mordecai was related to king Saul of Israel (Lessing 2014, 274).

In Esther, Christ is seen as God delivers his people from genocide (Lessing 2014, 275). God shows his ongoing plan to bring a savior through Judah. Haman’s plan would have prevented this. There are signs of piety, but Lessing says the rhetoric of Esther stood in the way of specific prayers. The author seems to want us to see God at work even when he is not recognized (Lessing 2014, 275). Sin of the pagans and the Jews is seen. It has consequences. Yet God preserves his people (Lessing 2014, 276).

National Restoration

2/27/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
2/27/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 14, “Ezra and Nehemiah” pp. 243-266.

Lessing notes that as well as being a narrative about rebuiilding in Jerusalem, Ezra and Nehemiah speak of God’s work through his chosen leaders (Lessing 2014, 243). Lessing considers four views of authorship. First, a traditional view finds Ezra as the author of Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles (Lessing 2014, 243). The texts of Chronicles and Nehemiah, however, bring events to about 90 years after Ezra was sent back to Jerusalem. Second, there is a suggestion that Ezra wrote Ezra and Nehemiah wrote Nehemiah. Lessing considers that the switches between first and third person make this seem unlikely (Lessing 2014, 24). A third view suggests that the unknown author of Chronicles also wrote Ezra and Nehemiah. This view dates from the 1830s and has fairly wide acceptance (Lessing 2014, 245). This view is heavily dependent on the accuracy of information in 1 Esdras and on a common vocabulary and syntax. Lessing does not consider this adequately convincing (Lessing 2014, 246). Lessing concludes that a more recent view is correct. “An unknown editor or editors composed Ezra and Nehemiah, relying heavily on source documents, including Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s personal memoirs” (Lessing 2014, 246). Chronicles is not as likely to be tired directly to the same editor.

Lessing notes that Ezra and Nehemiah are counted as one book in the Jewish canon. They can easily be viewed together. The books can also be considered independently, creating a lack of consensus (Lessing 2014, 248). Lessing dates Ezra any time after March 27, 457 BC and Nehemiah probably after 336 BC due to events presented in the books (Lessing 2014, 248). He then provides a narrative summary of political and historic events helpful in dating the return from exile (Lessing 2014, 249). He concludes that there were several years between the proclamation of release from captivity and Ezra’s actual arrival in Jerusalem. A majority view sees it as 458 BC (Lessing 2014, 251). The evidence for the wall being completed in 445 BC is a bit more conclusive (Lessing 2014, 253). Nehemiah’s dates are more clearly laid out in the texts, with an arrival in 445 and governorshp until 433 (Lessing 2014, 253).

Lessing also discusses documents from the island of Elephantine. These documents largely date from the 5th century BC and were released into the antiquities market in the last 150 years (Lessing 2014, 54). The documents, including Aramaic political documents, show stylistic similarity to the Aramaic portions of Ezra.

From a literary perspective, Lessing notes there is “extensive use of source documents” (Lessing 2014, 254). The author(s) mostly compiled information, rather than writing original material. Ezra 1-6 deals with the return to Jerusalem and building the temple. Cahpers 7-10 speak of attempts to return to a trust in Torah and Moses (Lessing 2014, 256). There is an emphasis on the concept of God working in his people. Nehemiah 1-6 speaks of the restoration of the wall around Jerusalem. Cahpters 7-13 speak of the restoration of faith in God (Lessing 2014, 257). Again, the theme of God’s protection and provision is at the forefront.

Theologically the texts are most interested in worship, in Scripture, and in marriage (Lessing 2014, 257). Festivals for worship feature prominently. The worship is centered around Scripture, which is referred to frequently as the norm for God’s people. Marriage is important as God gathers a people who are faithful to His covenant (Lessing 2014, 261). Marrying outside of the covenant normally led people to worship of other gods. This was unacceptable in God’s people.

Ezra and Nehemiah are very concerned with God’s people being separate from the world round them. By grace they have been returned to their homeland. They are to live in grace there (Lessing 2014, 262). This means a rejection of sin. The work of building the temple shows a means of grace and forgiveness of sin (Lessing 2014, 263).

Lessing sees this restoration to the land and access to the temple as a promise of Christ and his forgiveness (Lessing 2014, 263). In Ezra and Nehemiah God is preserving a people who will look to the Christ.

Tracking a Faithful Remnant

2/20/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
2/20/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 13, “Chronicles” pp. 231-242..

Lessing notes that Chronicles has often been dismissed as an afterthought. However, in recent times with more attention, scholars are finding an interesting literary style and a “unique theological outlook” (Lessing 2014, 231). The author is unidentified, clearly at a late date due to the information recorded. There is mention of a coin which was initially made in 515 BC (Lessing 2014, 231), as well as a genealogy which pushes the time to about 400 BC (Lessing 2014, 232). The vocabulary and theology are consistent throughout. This points to one author (Lessing 2014, 232). Because of the amount of time recorded there is evidence of extensive research. Many of these sources are referred to in the text. Lessing considers the speculation of the Chronicler being the author of Ezra/Nehemiah as unlikely, preferring to leave the identity unknown (Lessing 2014, 234).

Lessing notes that, in comparison to Samuel and Kings, the text of Chronicles does not appear to refer to the Masoretic Text, but more likely to a text similar to that used for the Septuagint (Lessing 2014, 235). This text is also in evidence in some of the Qumran scrolls. The book is very selective in choice of material used. “Some go so far as to call Chronicles a ‘utopian’ view of Israel’s past, not because it paints Israel’s past as uniformly good, but because it presents an unrealistic and idealized view of Israel’s heritage in order to present a specific theological and social agenda for the post-exilic community in Jerusalem and Judah (Lessing 2014, 236). Lessing sees these ideas as based entirely on speculation. More likely, the author laid more emphasis on the factos which he considered more important (Lessing 2014, 237).

Among the most important themes, Lessing notes the worship a nd praise of God (Lessing 2014, 239). Kings and others are evaluated based on their willingness to worship God. Prophets and prophecy also are featured in Chronicles (Lessing 2014, 240). The prophets have more of a role in interpreting Scripture and writing than in doing things, as they do in Samuel and Kings.

Chronicles is emphatic about God’s work to retain a line of David which would eventually lead to the Messiah (Lessing 2014, 241). The text also has a fairly direct relationship between sin and punishment, obedience and blessing (Lessing 2014, 241).

The Strong Executive Crumbles the Nation

2/13/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
2/13/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 12, “Kings” pp. 211-230.

Lessing notes that what we know as 1 Kings and 2 Kings are referred to in Jewish tradition as one text, dating from the time and possibly the pen of Jeremiah (Lessing 2014, 211). The division appears to be a matter of fitting material onto appropriate size scrolls. Lessing sees the text as strongly influenced by Deuteronomy (Lessing 2014, 211). Lessing explores several theories of the composition. The book was completed after 560 BC, when the last events happen. There is no mention of a return from captivity, so it is unlikely to be after 538 BC (Lessing 2014, 212).

The text of Kings contains many chronological markers (Lessing 2014, 213). There are also unifying features in the way events are described, with similarities in the introductions of similar events (Lessing 2014, 213). The author refers to a variety of source documents (Lessing 2014, 214).

Lessing observes that dating of events may be very challenging. There are multiple ways in which the years of a king’s reign could be calculated. Kings seems to use several (Lessing 2014, 215). There are also several events which are not presented in chronological order (Lessing 2014, 215). Extrabiblical sources for some events are helpful in establishing dates.

Lessing discusses several theories surrounding the relative lack of evidence about Solomon’s realm. He concludes that the presencce of modern Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s Jerusalem makes it very difficult to obtain archaeological records. This is a hindrance to scholarship (Lessing 2014, 217). It does not indicate that Solomon did not exist.

In 931 or shortly after, when Solomon was dead, the kingdom divided into Israel in the north and Judah in the south (Lessing 2014, 218). To solidify his power in the north, Jeroboam established places of worship (Lessing 2014, 219). Lessing notes that Israel largely left its religious moorings (Lessing 2014, 219). Assyria rose to dominance and proved a threat to Israel (Lessing 2014, 221). Assyria removed populations from subject territories and mixed them together so as to dilute nationalism.

Lessing observes that the southern kingdom ofJudah was more stable (Lessing 2014, 222). The line of Davidic kings may well have aided in creating consistency. The Babylonian empire, after overthrowing Assyria in 612 BC, threatened Judah (Lessing 2014, 223). Babylon was more likely to deport subjects or simply sack their territory and remove their wealth. This was very different from the Assyrian practice (Lessing 2014, 223).

Prophets are very important in Kings (Lessing 2014, 224). The prophets and other men of God engage in a large array of activities. They are trained, identifiable, and engaged in political and social life (Lessing 2014, 225).

Lessing notes a number of archaeological investigations which tend to confirm the picture we have from Kings (Lessing 2014, 226).

The leaders in Kings regularly fall short of perfection (Lessing 2014, 226). This leads Lessing to contrast these earthly rulers with Christ. The kingdom of Solomon was broken due to Solomon’s lack of belief in God. He and others fail to believe and find themselves with negative consequences (Lessing 2014, 227). Yet throughout, God makes promises of eventual restoration, especially through the house of David (Lessing 2014, 227).

National Coalition and Prophetic Vigor

2/6/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
2/6/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 11, “Samuel” pp. 189-210.

The books of Samuel, treated together by Lessing, move Israel from a group of tribes to a nation with a king (Lessing 2014, 189). The author refers to a variety of written sources consulted. There are numerous references to events as if they were in the distant past. Lessing therefore concludes the text comes from an author later than Samuel (Lessing 2014, 189). He does not think a post-exilic time fits, largely due to manuscript conventions. He concludes it was written before the exile and after the time of Solomon (Lessing 2014, 190).

Source criticism has attempted to find multiple foundations in tension. The most notable in Lessing’s view is the tension between sources positive and negative toward the monarchy (Lessing 2014, 190). Tradition-historical scholarship attempts to find narratives about different topics. Yet in the absence of source documents these moves are also uncertain (Lessing 2014, 191). Lessing finds the narrative to be cohesive. He does not think it is a collage of sources weakly related. Redaction critics seek to identify a variety of editorial layers in the text. Yet Lessing does not agree that there are competing and incompatible philosophies in conflict (Lessing 2014, 192).

Samuel is mostly historical narrative (Lessing 2014, 193). It covers the period from the end of Judges through the reign of David. While Saul tends to be seen in a nagative light, David receives more favorable treatment (Lessing 2014, 194). After discussing some of the treatments of the text, Lessing observes that the main character is not any human but is God. “The book’s literary goal is to portary God as the one who deals patiently and mercifully with sinners” (Lessing 2014, 194).

The text of Samuel has significant variants. Lessing suggest that the Septuagint may have been translated from a text tradition we no longer have (Lessing 2014, 197). This leads some scholars to be very hostile to the text or to various versions of it (Lessing 2014, 199).

Lessing discusses the historicity of David. While some schoalrs will deny his existence and some will question the extent of his kingdom, Lessing sees evidence that largely supports the view of Samuel (Lessing 2014, 199). There are ruins and inscriptions which refer to David and indicate Israelite presence in the areas specified in Samuel (Lessing 2014, 201).

As to theological themes, Samuel shows God as the one who brings success (Lessing 2014, 202). The book also describes an important role of prophets in carrying God’s Word to others (Lessing 2014, 203). God’s Spriit is also very active in the text. Finally, there are many statements about the Messiah and his kingdom (Lessing 2014, 204). The book is full of statements of sin and grace. Every major character’s sin is pointed out (Lessing 2014, 205). These sins result in trouble not only for the individuals, but often for the nation as a whole. The penalty is often a reversal of fortunes (Lessing 2014, 206). Again, a reversal of fortune may be in a positive direction for one whom God chooses (Lessing 2014, 207).

Transition through Crisis

1/30/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
1/30/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 10, “Ruth” pp. 179-188.

Lessing notes that though Ruth is a brief book, it has important themes of love for family and God’s provision in advancing his promise of a Messiah (Lessing 2014, 179). The inclusion of David as king and the view of a unified Israel points to composition during the reign of David or Solomon (Lessing 2014, 179). Lessing sees the presence of a main character from Moab and the inclusion of some Aramaic elements as a negligible element in dating. This does not convince him of a late date (Lessing 2014, 180).

The plot is centered around various crises. In each situation a character needs help and protection. There is an obstacle which is eventually overcome (Lessing 2014, 80). The issue of Levirite marriage comes up frequently. In this system, if a man dies childless, his brother is responsible to raise up offspring. This may also be extended, as in Ruth 3-4, to a more distant relative in case of an inheritance (Lessing 2014, 181). Lessing notes that the law may well not have applied to the reeemer in Ruth, but that it is suggested by Boaz that it would (Lessing 2014, 182).

Lessing discusses the exchange of a sandal along with the land transaction in chatper 4 (Lessing 2014, 182). The custom a pparently predates much written documentation. Ruth looks back in history to an activity which had since fallen out of common use.

The genealogy of ten generations, a number of symmetry, with Boaz at the important sevent position, suggests an artful depiction of the move from Jericho to Jerusalem (Lessing 2014, 183).

Ruth features the theme of fidelity, both God’s to his people and his people’s to their families (Lessing 2014, 183). Closely related to the theme of fidelity is that of God’s providential care for his people (Lessing 2014, 184). The promise of redemption is also a strong, recurring theme(Lessing 2014, 185). This includes not only the symbolic return to Israel but the kinsman redeemer and the genealogy pointing to David (Lessing 2014, 185).

Lessing notes the thieme of sin and grace in Ruth is very important. The sin in this text is a returning to our own plans, wisdom, or background rather than depending on God (Lessing 2014, 186). Despite this sinful pattern God repeatedly intervenes and points his people back to himself.

Entering New Territory

1/23/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
1/23/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 9, “Judges” pp. 163-178.

The book of Judges is named from the Vulgate “iudices,” meaning judges. The Hebrew takes its name from a verb for exercising judgment or rule (Lessing 2014, 163). The judges often hve the role of a deliverer, though some function in more clearly judicial roles. Steinmann observes formal anonymous authorship, but a common ascription to Samuel (Lessing 2014, 163). Internal evidence points to authorship prior to David’s rule. The judges apparently overlapped one another to some extent (Lessing 2014, 164). Stenman notes the work of Noth, who has shaped critical views by arguing for multiple layers of editorial progress (Lessing 2014, 165). Counter to this analysis, Stenman finds considerable balance and symmetry in the text, a feature he considers indicative of unity of authorship (Lessing 2014, 166).

Lessing finds three main sections in Judges. First there is a summary of the conquest. Next comes a series of occupations nad rescue by judges. Finally there is a narrative of serious decline into anarchy (Lessing 2014, 167).

Throughout the book, the threat to Israel is related to the Canaanitic religions (Lessing 2014, 168). Lessing relates some highlights of the religious system, which has been brought to considerably clarity by finds of texts since 1929. A further challenge is presented by the Philistines, or the Sea Peoples (Lessing 2014, 169). The judges, empowered by God’s Spirit, are successful against enemies but not against idolatry (Lessing 2014, 170). Lessing walks through the different judges, giving a brief summary about each one’s work.

God’s messenger, often seen as a Christ figure, is prominent in Judges (Lessing 2014, 176). He seems unlike an angel, as he has many marks of deity. In the final analysis, the people of Israel need a king. The New Testament identifies that true king as Christ (Lessing 2014, 176).

New Leader, Old Promise

1/16/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
1/16/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 8, “Joshua” pp. 145-162.

Lessing reminds his readers from the outset that Joshua contains much more than the narrative of the entry of Israel into Canaan (Lessing 2014, 145). The book contains claims that much of the material was written by Joshua, son of Nun. Many scholars, however, noting the statements which indicate that the narrative is from the distant past, consider the final form to come later. Lessing notes many statements of “to this day.” He also notes that old place names are explained with more recent names. There is also a reference in 10:13 to a book which refers to later information (Lessing 2014, 146). Followers of Higher Criticism have attempted to find Pentateuchal sources, but have largely abandoned those efforts. Rather, classifying Deuteronomy through Kings together as a unified historical corpus, they assign a late authorship during the Babylonian exile. All the critical notions Lessing mentions assume a necessary conflict of ideologies and later attempts to assemble text which, by its nature, does not seem to require such a process (Lessing 2014, 148). Lessing gives some examples of the process imposed on the plain meaning of the text.

From a literary standpoint, much of Joshua is historical narrative concerning the entrance of Israel into Canaan and the subsequent conquest. The book also deals with the division of the land among different tribes. The closing is a charge from Joshua to God’s people (Lessing 2014, 150).

Lessing observes that the narrative of conquest may suggest either a capture of the whole land under Joshua or an initial strike under Joshua followed by the various tribes seeking their own victories (Lessing 2014, 151). Lessing concludes that Joshua’s campaign was the start of the invasion. He thinks the tribes then worked to establish their reign in the different areas. Some scholars have seen the move differently, as a peaceful infiltration or a peasant revolt (Lessing 2014, 152). Archaeological evidence for a fall of Jericho about 1400 BC is problematic (Lessing 2014, 153). Carbon dating is questionable, with a potential error of about 170 years. The city of Hazor can clearly be dated as falling around 1400 BC.

Lessing identifies the primary theological themes of Joshua as a “holy war and the extermination of the inhabitants of the land” (Lessing 2014, 155). That which is devoted to God is not available for human use. This can explain the idea of sacrifice and the concept of devoting a people to God by destruction in warfare (Lessing 2014, 155). Those who were disobedient to God were liable to destruction. Lessing points out that the status of Israel as set apart from the native idolatry was so as to preserve a people for the Messiah (Lessing 2014, 156). Christians are not called to violent overthrow. “Instead, Christians are called to live among unbelievers, but to avoid being joined with them in their sins (2 Cor. 6:14-7:1)” (Lessing 2014, 156). Christ is seen in Joshua as God involves himself directly in the fight against his enemies. God shows grace clearly as he fulfills his promises. He gives the land of promise to Israel (Lessing 2014, 157). Despite Israel’s failure and rebellion, God’s promise is fulfilled. It is God who gives the people victory over their adversaries (Lessing 2014, 158).

A Necessary Review

1/9/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
1/9/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 7, “Deuteronomy” pp. 131-144.

The book of Deuteronomy takes its English name from the Greek for “second law.” Lessing points out that the content clarifies God’s words from Mount Sinai (Lessing 2014, 131). Lessing considers the claims throughout Deuteronomy assigning the words to Moses as a claim of Mosaic authorship, which he accepts. However, he concludes that there are some passages which indicate additional material inserted after the time of Moses (Lessing 2014, 132). Other critical views will assign composite authorship, often at a much later time. The book is, however, in the form of treaties used only for a brief time, around the time of Moses (Lessing 2014, 132). This encourages Lessing to hold to a Mosaic view of authorship.

Deuteronomy is by and large a series of sermons, in which Moses clarifies and restates the history of God’s dealings with his people (Lessing 2014, 133). The text is sometimes compared in structure to treaties used in Hittite territories at the time of Moses (Lessing 2014, 135). In any analysis, there are several lengthy discourses, all organized around the way God and his people dwell together.

Critical scholarship sees in Deuteronomy a radical shift from the theology in Genesis through Numbers (Lessing 2014, 136). The scholars see it as centralizing the authority recognized of God. They also see a corrective against a more mythic and allegedly earlier view in which God has location. The concept of Torah is very important in Deuteronomy (Lessing 2014, 137). Lessing considers “law” as an inadequate translation of the concept of “Torah.” The text not only states legal principles but it reveals God’s great and gracious will as an expression of his character. It is, above all, a preached message (Lessing 2014, 137). A powerful and related theme is that of idolatry. Pursuing worship of anything other than God is a false religion (Lessing 2014, 139). Punishment for false religions is very strict. In contrast to the other nations, Israel is the chosen people of God, who exercises sovereignty in his rule over his people (Lessing 2014, 139). These are the people who will inherit the land, another major theme (Lessing 2014, 140). This land, promised to Abraham, will become the home for God’s people.

Deuteronomy is referred to in the New Testament more than almost any other Old Testament book (Lessing 2014, 141). Israel, God’s chosen people, is reduced to one in Jesus, the chosen Son of God. Moses appears in Deuteronomy as the one who foreshadows the Christ (Lessing 2014, 142). The images of bodily care of people, hearts, hands, eyes, etc., are all embodied in Jesus.

The concept of sin and grace is very clear in Deuteronomy (Lessing 2014, 142). The people have a strong history of rebellion against God. They are a chosen people not because of their goodness but because of God’s great mercy.

Worship in the Wilderness

1/2/2018

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
1/2/18

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 6, “Numbers” pp. 115-130.

The book of Numbers, as noted by its Hebrew title, “in the wilderness,” takes place in a desolate area, not capable of sustaining humans (Lessing 2014, 115). The Greek version took the name of numbering from the accounting in various places of the book. The book makes many references to Moses receiving God’s words and writing. However, critics observe the lack of direct claims of Mosaic authorship.

Lessing notes the difficulty of deriving one definitive outline from the book (Lessing 2014, 116). The book can be subdivided in several coherent ways. The events in the book occur between 1446 and 1406 B.C. (Lessing 2014, 118). The first ten chapters deal with a two month period. The next 14 chapters cover 39 years. Lessing summarizes the different travels of Israel in Nubmers briefly (Lessing 2014, 119).

The census events in chapters one and 26 count men of military age (Lessing 2014, 120). The first census can be used to derive a total population of about three million. Lessing asks some important logistic questions, including why a large nation would fear small armies and nations (Lessing 2014, 120). He concludes that the numbers do seem to be intended as literal, though slightly rounded, numbers (Lessing 2014, 121).

There are various encounters with foreigners recorded in Numbers. In these encounters, “those who bless Israel are blessed while those who curse God’s people are cursed” (Lessing 2014, 121). Lessing details these encounters.

Among theological themes of Numbers, the primary discussion is the role of the Levites (Lessing 2014, 124). They are set aside for God’s service, though not all in the priesthood. Another important theme is the passing of the old generation and the growth of a new generation who would claim God’s promised land (Lessing 2014, 125). The unbelief of the old generation condemned it to death in the wilderness. A third important theme is Moses’ sin, which prevented his entrance into the promised land (Lessing 2014, 127). Lessing observes his claim of a miracle done by him rather than God (Numbers 20:10). Further, in the same passage, when told to speak to a rock, Moses struck the rock. Lessing considers Moses’ gestures and actions to be similar to the motions of the pagan magicians, which could also confuse people about the source of the miracles.

Jesus may be seen in Numbers as the people confess their sin and then look to a bronze serpent lifted up on a pole for salvation (Lessing 2014, 128). Jesus fulfills this role as the one lifted up for his people. He claims to be the bread from heaven, the fulfillment of the manna which Israel ate. The prophecies of Balaam in Numbers 23 make references to the Christ.

In Numbers Israel repeatedly wishes to return to Egypt, counter to God’s promise. God repeatedly shows grace and forgiveness (Lessing 2014, 128).

Approaching God

12/26/2017

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
12/26/17

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 5, “Leviticus” pp. 97-114.

Lessing observes that Leviticus has long had a reputation as a book which tends to push the reader away (Lessing 2014, 97). However, the content is overwhelmingly focused on the way the tabernacle and what is done there serves to deliver grace to God’s people. Critics would date Leviticus late, noting the highly developed ceremonial rites in place (Lessing 2014, 98). Lessing takes a more literal approach, seeing that the book appears to be placed at the time of Moses.
The text of Leviticus has a natural division into two parts with chapter 16 as a pivot chapter (Lessing 2014, 98). The rest of the book is dependent on chapter 16 and the work of the Day of Atonement (Lessing 2014, 99). This cleansing work is central to the entire book. Lessing notes the emphasis on sacrifice and offerings throughout the book (Lessing 2014, 100). The goal of all offerings is holiness (Lessing 2014, 103). Lessing observes that the holy integrity of God and His people described in Leviticus stood in contrast to the collapse of distinctions found in Canaanite religions (Lessing 2014, 104). Leviticus also describes Israel as a holy nation, a kind of priesthood. However, within that nation of priests, some are designated as special administrators of forgiveness (Lessing 2014, 105). The priests are specially consecrated for their service. They do not claim power for their own gain (Lessing 2014, 106).

The Day of Atonement is introduced twice, in 16:1 and 16:2. It is the 18th of the 36 speeches in the book. The content, introduction, and placement are very significant (Lessing 2014, 107). The Day of Atonement is seen as the special time for forgiveness.

Lessing discusses Numbers 25 at some length. In this chapter the people are given rest for a day in seven, one year in seven, and every seventh seven - a year of rest and release of debts in the fiftieth year, stemming from God’s forgiveness (Lessing 2014, 108).

The laws of Leviticus may well underline the fact of community. One person’s actions influence the entire nation (Lessing 2014, 109). Lessing considers various views of the dietary and other laws. He concludes that they show a distinction and order to society, setting Israel apart from the surrounding nations (Lessing 2014, 110).

All the sacrifices, laws, and the structure of Israel’s community point to Jesus, the one who is holy and brings forgiveness (Lessing 2014, 110). Jesus fulfills the roles of sacrifice and of priest. The overall picture is that of forgiving grace delivered to sinful people (Lessing 2014, 111).

A Flight from Sin

12/19/2017

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
12/19/17

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 4 “Exodus” pp. 75-95.

The theme of the book of Exodus is the departure of God’s people from Egypt, a land that was not theirs, to go toward Canaan, thel and God had promised to them (Lessing 2014, 75). Lessing observes that Moses was commanded in Exodus to write and that he was present and had opportunity to write the text. Critics divide the text variously among anonymous authors and assign it a late date for reaching final form (Lessing 2014, 75). Most of the text is historical narrative of a theological nature. The author seeks agreement with the theological interpretation of the real historic events presented (Lessing 2014, 76). Lessing notes several types of events which happen multiple times in the book, increasing its cohesiveness. For instance, Moses is rescued from water. Later, Israel passes through water to be rescued (Lessing 2014, 76).

The exodus seems to fit into the 15th century B.C. (Lessing 2014, 77). Lessing describes several pieces of chronology from extrabiblical sources. The conclusion Lessing makes from the available dates is that the exodus happened in 1446 B.C. (Lessing 2014, 78). This also agrees with figures presented in 1 Kings 6, referring to Solomon’s fourth year in 967. This is also in agreement with the known Jubilee cycles of the period (Lessing 2014, 79).

The actual path of the exodus was “through the wilderness, not by the Way of the Sea (Exodus 13:17-18). Many sites on their route cannot be located with certainty” (Lessing 2014, 81). There has been debate over the identity of the sea crossing, as well as the location of Mount Sinai (Lessing 2014, 82). Lessing concludes that it is probably Mt. Horeb in Sinai.

Knowing Yahweh is a tremendous theological theme in Exodus (Lessing 2014, 82). The relation of the name to the verb for being suggests an identity as the one who is with Israel (Lessing 2014, 83). The hardening of Pharaoh’s heart is another important theme (Lessing 2014, 84). Lessing observes that when God hardens Pharaoh’s heart it is always after and in response to Pharaoh’s own hardening of his heart (Lessing 2014, 84). The plagues of God, showing judgment on Egypt as a central theme of Exodus. Lessing observes they do not assault each one. Rather, they all serve to assert that Israel’s God is the truly great and mighty God (Lessing 2014, 85). Another important theme is that of God’s call to the whole world. Lessing observes that God both showed mercy and sought to be known by all the earth. The Egyptians are invited to leave with Israel (Lessing 2014, 87).

It is very significant to the identity of Israel that in Exodus 19 the people arrive at Mount Sinai, remaining there until Numbers chapter 10 (Lessing 2014, 88). Israel becomes a people of law, though God redeemed them from slavery prior to giving the law. Lessing does observe that there was clearly law dating much earlier, citing Genesis 4, 18, and 26. However, here the law is clearly codified (Lessing 2014, 88). Additionally, in Exodus, the tabernacle is described and built. This gathers Israel as a people with a local identity and a means of worship (Lessing 2014, 89). Lessing draws links between the creation in Genesis 1-9 and the construction of the tabernacle, suggesting that the tabernacle is closely related to the creation and sustenance of the world (Lessing 2014, 90).

Lessing sees Christ in Exodus first through the idea of redemption and also through the idea that he is the true firstborn son (Lessing 2014, 92). Christ is intricately linked to the idea of the Passover as well (Lessing 2014, 93).

Sin and grace are central themes in Exodus. Both Israel as a group bound in sin and rescued, as well as Moses, an individual who is sinful himself but is forgiven and raised up as a leader feature as signs of redemption (Lessing 2014, 93).

Well Begun

12/12/2017

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
12/12/17

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 3 “Genesis” pp. 45-73.

Genesis, the book of beginnings, records not only the start of the world, but the origin of God’s people and the promise of a savior (Lessing 2014, 45). Though there are difficulties inherent in tying Genesis to Moses, not the least being the fact that he was not born until hundreds of years later, Lessing sees strong suggestions that Moses was the author and that the Pentateuch is cohesive (Lessing 2014, 45).

Lessing notes that the literary focus of Genesis moves from a broad treatment of all creation to a narrower focus on just the children of Israel (Lessing 2014, 47). The structure also moves through a series of instances of God’s choosing a person or people by grace (Lessing 2014, 48). He repeatedly chooses the lesser rather than the greater(Lessing 2014, 49).

Lessing next discusses history and archaeology as they pertain to Genesis (Lessing 2014, 53). A Mesopotamian creation myth involving division of waters was discovered in 1876, leading some to think the Genesis account is patterned on this pagan myth. Lessing sees substantial and important differences, including a possible dating after the time of Moses (Lessing 2014, 54). There are also Egyptian creation myths which, though similar, bear substantial differences. Lessing observes that a Mosaic account of creation could have been written to refute an Egyptian myth current in his time (Lessing 2014, 55). Dating of events in Genesis is also problematic. Lessing points out that “father” and “son” may simply mean “ancestor” and “descendant” (Lessing 2014, 56). Te lineage and dating of the patriarchs is relatively easier due to information known about the Exodus (Lessing 2014, 57).

Striking theological themes include God’s creation by his spoken word and humans as the pinnacle of creation (Lessing 2014, 58). It is also highly significant that in creation there was no conflict or warfare. This differs from other creation accounts (Lessing 2014, 58). Lessing considers the “days” of creation and concludes that the cycle of “day” and “night” is best understood as we would interpret the day/night cycle, 24 hours (Lessing 2014, 60). He then considers the relationship of Genesis 1 and 2, seeing a parallel and supplementary function of chapter 2, rather than a different account (Lessing 2014, 61).

The fall into sin is central to Genesis (Lessing 2014, 62). All pain and discord are seen as related to the events in Genesis 3. Out of all humans, God chose a line of descent which would lead to a savior from sin. This line is traced in detail in Genesis (Lessing 2014, 63). Lessing also points to the idea of justification by faith as presented in Genesis (Lessing 2014, 65). This faith receives the pardon God has declared. It does not earn anything. Pardon is provided by God, based on His decision rather than human merit.

Lessing traces a Messianic promise through Genesis, observing the existence of the promise as soon as the curse on sin is known (Lessing 2014, 66). God then continues to make promises to the patriarchs, centered on the hope of a Messiah (Lessing 2014, 67). The need for a Messiah is illustrated by the many instances of sin and a need for grace.

The Pentateuch - Everything Came from Somewhere

12/5/2017

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
12/5/17

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 2 “The Origins of the Pentateuch” pp. 13-44.

Jews and Christians alike place the same five books at the start of the canon. The plot of Genesis through Deuteronomy is quite cohesive, but there have been many theories of multiple authors and extensive redaction (Lessing 2014, 13). Moses, historically recognized as the author, would have been well qualified to write the work. He was present at the time of the Exodus and would have had adequate education to write (Lessing 2014, 14). There are also passages in the Pentateuch strongly suggesting Moses as an author. The rest of the Old Testament frequently refers to Moses as the author of these books (Lessing 2014, 15). The New Testament also frequently refers to the Pentateuch as the work of Moses (Lessing 2014, 15). There are, however, certainly some passages which are apparently editorial insertions (Lessing 2014, 16), most notably the account of Moses’ burial at the end of Deuteronomy. Lessing also suggests a number of explanatory remarks which would not make much sense at the time of Moses but would at a later date (Lessing 2014, 17).

Lessing observes that there have been some groups at various times who have doubted Mosaic authorship (Lessing 2014, 19). He details a few in different locales and separated by several hundred years. Those seem very much like isolated incidents. In the Enlightenment period, however, more widespread and constant questions arose (Lessing 2014, 20). Influential writers were Thomas Hobbes, Benedict Spinoza, and Richard Simon. Following on their heels, Jean Astruc in 1753 suggested that the Pentateuch was compiled from four sources (Lessing 2014, 20). Astruc’s work was built on by Johan Gottfried Eichhorn, who, in 1780-83, divided Genesis and part of Exodus by their supposed sources (Lessing 2014, 21). This practice, known as “the Older Documentary Hypothesis,” sought to identify sources of the text (Lessing 2014, 21). As this view was growing strong, some scholars chose to seek smaller fragments and a stronger role of the later editor or redactor (Lessing 2014, 22). This view came to be known as the “Fragmentary Hypothesis.” It became popular at the very start of the 19th century. In the 1820s another view arose, the “Supplementary Hypothesis,” which considered the Pentateuch was originally one document which was augmented from other materials (Lessing 2014, 22). “In 1853 Hermann Hupfeld returned scholarship to a purely documentary approach to the composition of Genesis” (Lessing 2014, 23). He articulated a “New Documentary Hypothesis” with four sources. At the same time, other scholars, drawing on Hegel’s philosophy, saw the Scripture as a product of, rathe than a guide for, Israel’s state (Lessing 2014, 24). The synthesis was articulated by Wellhausen in the 1870s (Lessing 2014, 25). This became the classic formulation of the Documentary Hypothesis which was widely accepted by critical scholars by 1900 (Lessing 2014, 25). Lessing describes the theoretical development of the Old Testament in some detail.
The broad acceptance of the Documentary Hypothesis led scholars to attempt to understand the forms of literature behind the various sources later assembled to create the Old Testament. This practice, “Form Criticism,” came to prominence in the early 20th century (Lessing 2014, 27). A related discipline was Tradition Criticism, which seeks out groups of statements or ideas which may have originally belonged together (Lessing 2014, 28).

Not only does Lessing consider all these methods very speculative, but he observes they depend on a late date of final composition and tend to reject other explanations out of hand regardless of evidence (Lessing 2014, 30). Lessing then addresses weaknesses of specific hypotheses. In the last quarter of the 20th century the Documentary Hypothesis has largely been discredited (Lessing 2014, 34). Critical studies of the rhetoric and literary structures have largely overtaken the concerns of authorship (Lessing 2014, 35). The editorial work suggested by the Documentary Hypothesis is so thorough it appears no editor existed and that the works may have been cohesive from the start (Lessing 2014, 37). Lessing does not various recent supporters of the Documentary Hypothesis as well (Lessing 2014, 38). The work of cataloging various putative authors does continue.

Old Testament Canonicity

11/28/2017

Tuesdays are for the Old Testament
11/28/17

Lessing, R. Reed & Andrew E. Steinmann. Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2014. Chapter 1 “The Old Testament Canon” pp. 1-12.

The term “canon” indicates an authoritative listing. Lessing and Steinmann note that the Old Testament canon is recognized by many groups, though there may be some variations in the order or in how some additional resources are viewed (Lessing 2014, 1). By the second century B.C. there seems to be recognition of such a collection of writings. Though canonicity may not have been formally stated in Judaism until the fourth century, the common acceptance and use of the canonical books seems to reach considerably earlier (Lessing 2014, 2).

The idea of binding scrolls together in books was unknown at the time of Jesus (Lessing 2014, 3). Therefore we would not expect to see an earlier example of an entire Old Testament. Lessing and Steinmann observe that other books were read, especially by some Christians, alongside the Old Testament books which Jews rather universally accepted. In the West, these books tended to be accepted as part of the Old Testament (Lessing 2014, 3). In the Reformation, while those additional books were noted, they were normally removed from the group Jews would recognize as canonical (Lessing 2014, 3). As a reaction to the Protestant Reformation, the Roman church tended to adopt and hold to those books. Protestants referred to them as “apocryphal” while Roman Catholics called them “deuterocanonical” (Lessing 2014, 4).

Lessing and Steinmann continue with a comparison of the Jewish, Protestant, and Roman Catholic canonical lists (Lessing 2014, 4-5). The Jewish canon is largely arranged in an order useful in the liturgy, quite possibly developed in the first century or after (Lessing 2014, 6). The Protestant Old Testament is the same in content but is arranged differently. The books are also divided differently, resulting in a different number of documents (Lessing 2014, 6). The Roman Catholic Old Testament is similar to the Protestant arrangement, but inserts the deuterocanonical books in logical locations (Lessing 2014, 7). Lessing and Steinmann walk through the deuterocanonical books, giving a very brief summary of each and its likely time of composition. They then observe that in Eastern Orthodoxy there are differing customs about the Apocrypha (Lessing 2014, 10).