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Early Views of the Eucharist

1/13/2021

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Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
1/13/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Five: The Celebration of the Eucharist in the Writings of the Apologists."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 39-49.

Jungmann notes that among the early Christians the term "eucharist" is taken to indicate both the Sunday gathering and the sacrament itself. He asserts but does not document that "the action is called a sacrifice" (Jungmann 1959, 39). Justin's First Apology (ca. 150) describes a baptism, the Eucharist, and the whole of the Sunday service (ch. 65) (Jungmann 1959, 40). Jungmann particularly observes the threefold act of preparation. Fist there is a common prayer, participated in only by the faithful (Jungmann 1959, 41). Based on the record of prayer in the Didache one could easily conclude that this is the prayer we know as the Lord's Prayer. Second is the kiss of peace. Jungmann considers this to foreshadow the conciliatory nature of the Eucharist. The final element is the offering, which is brought to the one standing in front of the congregation, presumably the bishop. Bread, wine, and water are brought.

In Justin's First Apology chapter 67 there is a description of a Sunday service without a baptism. The Euchraistic prayer and communion are clearly present (Jungmann 1959, 42). By this time, at least in Justin's experience, the Sacrament was received every Sunday. Chapter 66 describes bread and wine as body and blood, and that the prayer of thanksgiving holds a performative force (Jungmann 1959, 43).

The entire service is pervaded with thanksgiving, as God has rescued his people out of the darkness of this world and into his light (Jungmann 1959, 44). ungmann illustrates the distinction between paganism and Christianity at some length.

The concept of sacrifice, though present as early as the Didache (ch. 14) was not emphasized in the second century (Jungmann 1959, 46). Jungmann suggests that sacrifice and thanksgiving may not have been understood as mutually exclusive. Even prayers can be seen as offering a gift to God (Jungmann 1959, 47). Jungmann grants that the thanks we give to God are not at all comparable to his gift to us. Yet they are what we can give. Jungmann also points out that Christian sacrifices are not blood offerings. They are spiritual in nature (Jungmann 1959, 48). Finally, our giving of thanks in the Eucharist is a memorial of Jesus' sacrifice for us. When we give thanks we are participating in his sacrifice.

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The Breaking of Bread

1/6/2021

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Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
1/6/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Four: The Breaking of Bread: The Oldest Form of Eucharistic Service."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 29-38.

Acts 2:42, 2:46, 20:7, and 1 Corinthians 10:16 make it clear that a Eucharistic celebration, the breaking of the bread, was at the center of early Christian worship. Jungmann sees this as a direct continuation of the events in the Last Supper. He also sees it as distinct from a meal, saying "nowhere is there evidence that in profane speech the expression 'breaking bread' ever meant 'having a meal' (Jungmann 1959, 29). Though it requires some speculation, from the few early accounts we can draw some conclusions about the Eucharist.

Jungmann notes that in 1 Corinthians the Eucharist was associated with a meal. Paul's exhortation to the Corinthians was not to change the meal, but to avoid abuses in the meal. A celebratory meal was a common theme in Jewish thought and made sense in the context of a messianic celebration (Jungmann 1959, 30). Because of the association of the Last Supper with Passover, most would view the Eucharist as related somehow to the Paschal meal, but with some added sacramental significance. However, Jungmann suggests it is more likely to be related to the Jewish custom of a Sabbath evening meal (Jungmann 1959, 31). The breaking of bread and praise to God was at the start of a meal, while a "cup of blessing" came near the end. The ritual, as Jungmann sees it, may have been literally surrounding a meal, as suggested by Luke and Paul who specify the cup is "after it has been eaten." It may also have been one event, without a meal in the middle, as suggested by Matthew and Mark, who make no mention of "after it has been eaten" (Jungmann 1959, 32). In the end, the meal may have been omitted, leading to the liturgy we retain to the present. Jungmann cites Dix and his analysis of the seven liturgical actions in the liturgy as an authority on early practice (Jungmann 1959, 32).

Jungmann notes that in Hippolytus' Church Order the newly baptized receives first bread, then a chalice of milk and honey, which is a traditional meal for a newborn. They then receive water, which recalls washing, then they receive the wine. This practice was still known in Rome as late as 215 (Jungmann 1959, 35). The Didache also makes statements about the practice of communion, which would be applicable to a slightly private gathering as well. The prayers are suited to a Eucharistic meal of some substance (Jungmann 1959, 36). 

The words of institution bear comment. Jungmann observes that in the Gospels and in 1 Corinthians they are recorded differently. He suggests this is a reflection of differing liturgical usage in different communities. The sacrament is the same but the words which introduce it may have some variation (Jungmann 1959, 37). 

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The Lord's Day

12/30/2020

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Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
12/30/20

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Three: Sunday and Easter in the Primitive Church."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 19-28.

Jungmann observes that the earliest Christians retained the idea of a seven day week byt transferred the emphasis from the Sabbath to the first day. He cites 1 Corinthians 16:2 as an example of Christians using the Sunday as the foundation of their calendar (Jungmann 1959, 19). The Sunday was not considered a replacement Sabbath, but the Lord's day, the celebration of Christ's resurrection. Didache 14.1 makes it clear that was the day for meeting and receiving the Eucharist (Jungmann 1959, 20). Jungmann illustrates the concept of a Lord's day being Sunday and no other day.

Jungmann notes a tendency in early Christianity to call Sunday the eighth day, thus avoiding the idea that the Sabbath, as the last day of the week, was the climax (Jungmann 1959, 22). Church fathers then proceeded to see the number eight as a sign of resurrection and renewal. The pagan reference to the day of the sun, while not approved by Christians, was soon taken as a reminder that Christ is the sun of righteousness who rises and brings light and life (Jungmann 1959, 24).

Jungmann contends that Easter was early recognized as coming from apostolic practice. He sees it as the direct continuation of the Passover (Jungmann 1959, 25). The debate about it in the second century was based on whether the date of 14 Nisan was the proper day or if it should be celebrated on the Sunday afte rthat  date (Jungmann 1959, 25-26). Jungmann describes the challenge caused by the interaction of the Jewish lunar calendar and the Julian calendar. In the end, the church, at least in the West, celebrates Easter the Sunday after 14 Nisan.

The Easter celebration was divided into two portions, the passion and resurrection. The first part, primarily penitential, began on Friday. On Sunday morning, the celebration of resurrection began with the reception of the Eucharist (Jungmann 1959, 27). The celebration then continued with no fasting through the fifty days until Pentecost.

The period of fasting before the celebration of Easter developed after the recognition of Pentecost. Jungmann bases it on the idea that the disciples would fast when the Bridegroom, Christ, is away. Having calculated this to be 40 hours, the Christian community took up a 40 day fast time before Easter for special devotion, and the 40 hours before the resurrection in complete fasting (Jungmann 1959, 28). 

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A Community of Worship

12/23/2020

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Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
12/23/20


Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Two: The Church as a Worshipping Community."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 10-18.

Jungmann sees Jesus' teaching to have a primary goal of enhancing personal piety. Yet he allows that there was a distinctive type of liturgy in use, particularly surrounding the temple worship (Jungmann 1959, 10). John 4, along with Romans 12, may suggest the temple worship and its forms will come to an end, to be replaced by a more self-mediated type of worshiop. Jungmann sees this as the conclusion of the Jews against Stephen in Acts 6-7 (Jungmann 1959, 11). Yet Jungmann is clear that the individual elements of worship do not preclude the existence of a Church, founded by Jesus, with visible attributes, assembly, and liturgy (Jungmann 1959, 12).

The early Christians clearly assembled together. Jungmann commends the letters of Ignatius to the Ephesians and to the Smyrnans. He also endorses the chapter in Dix' The Shape of the Liturgy (1945) on the pre-Nicene liturgy (Jungmann 1959, 12). Hostility toward Christians may have been based in large part on their rejection of civic gatherings and their practice of assembling together (Jungmann 1959, 13). The earliest Christians, as attested in Acts, assembled in individual houses. Jungmann suggests archaeological evidence that there were known houses in Rome which served as churches from the very early times. By about the year 200 there were buildings clearly owned by the Church, used for assemblies (Jungmann 1959, 14). 

The use of the catacombs bears brief discussion. Jungmann observes that these were most common only in Italy and served as burial sites. They were not well suited for assemblies due to the cramped spaces. A congregation would assemble rather in a house with a spacious atrium (Jungmann 1959, 15). Again, Jungmann refers to Dix as an authroity on places of Christian worship (Jungmann 1959, 15).

Jungmann does point out the fact that Christian worship was very different from pagan worship. "The Christian church is constructed for community meetings, whereas the pagan temple - whether that of early Babylon, or the temple built by Greek and Roman civilizations - was essentially intended as a dwelling of the deity" (Jungmann 1959, 16). The places used were correspondingly different .Christianity takes the assembled community as a primary attribute, rather than something happening by chance (Jungmann 1959, 17).

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Liturgy as the Link to Historic Christianity

12/16/2020

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Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
12/16/20

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter One: Introduction: History, the Present and the Future."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 1-8.

Jungmann considers that an evalution of history is necessary to develop a valid evaluation of the present or to mark projections of the future (Jungmann 1959, 1). The study of liturgy is very important in this regard, not the least because Christians are still engaged with liturgy on a day to day basis. Finding the roots of modern practices can help us understand the overall structure of the Christian life (Jungmann 1959, 2). 

The study of history of liturgy was sparked by the events of the Reformation, at which time apologists sought out sources of more current practices (Jungmann 1959, 3). However, Jungmann notes we have somewhat defective information from early Christianity. Not much was written about the actual liturgy, presumably because it was known through practice. However, Jungmann sees the skepticism of the 19th century as impetus for additional study (Jungmann 1959, 4). The documents discuvered and analyzed at the end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th century serve to connect ancient and modern worship.

Jungmann considers the most important sources of information to be in Justin's Apology, chapters 65-67, in the Apostolic Constitutions from the fourth century, from the Mystagogic Catecheses of Jerusalem, often appearing along with catecheses of Cyril of Jerusalem (Jungmann 1959, 5), and Ambrose's De Sacramentis. These sources were known before the 19th century. In more recent discoveries, Jungmann finds the Didache, Hippolytus' Tradition Apostolica, Serapion's Euchologica, including a complete text of a Mass, an anonymous work called the Peregrinatio Aeteriae, which describes church services from about the year 400, and Theodore of Mopsuestia's Catecheses (Jungmann 1959, 6, along with a fifth century Testamentum Domini Nostri Jesu Christi (Jungmann 1959, 7) to be essential. Jungmann further recommends the work of Johannes Quasten, particularly Monumenta eucharistica et liturgica vetustissima in the Florilegium Patriscticum series (Bonn, 1937) (Jungmann 1959, 7). 

Jungmann concludes that the study of historical liturgy allows us to rightly understand the past so as to carefully guide the future.

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