Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry
  • Home
  • Calendar
    • Calendar
    • Events
  • Blog
  • Recording Archives
  • Resources
    • Bible Study - John's Gospel
    • Greek Tutorials
  • About
    • About Wittenberg CoMo
    • Support Us
    • Contact Us
  • Position Papers
  • Sandbox

Development of the Roman Mass

5/19/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
5/19/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Twenty-Three: The Roman Mass Before Gregory the Great." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 288-307.

Jungmann considers the origin of the Latin Mass to be "wrapped in obscurity" (Jungmann 1959, 288). While Latin was likely used in the Roman Mass sometime in the third or fourth century, the accounts we have date to the sixth and seventh centuries, so some amount of speculation is necessary.

The "Fore-Mass," which many might call the Service of the Word, consists of lessons and prayers (Jungmann 1959, 289). The number of readings fairly early settled at three, with a Gradual and Alleluia after the Epistle (Jungmann 1959, 290). Prior to the readings, an introit, a song, and a prayer came into common use. Specifically, the introit and a Gloria Patri, followed by a prayer became normal, possibly due to the formality appropriate to the arrival of the bishop of Rome and his attendants (Jungmann 1959, 292). The Kyrie also appears, first in the East in the fourth century, as a litany before the prayer (Jungmann 1959, 293). It was adopted in the West by the sixth century, sometimes translated into Latin, but normally retained in Greek. The Gloria is known to have been a part of the Mass prior to the sixth century (Jungmann 1959, 295). It always came prior to the "oration" or "collect."

After the readings of Scripture and any sermon, the Mass proper would begin. At the outset the offertory was present as people could bring gifts including bread and wine (Jungmann 1959, 299). Communicants would come forward. Alternatively, those who were not communicants would either leave or make space for the communicants to gather. The consecration, a breaking of the bread, and the Lord's prayer would follow, then the kiss of peace prior to reception of communion.

The canon of the mass included the preface and a number of prayers before the consecration (Jungmann 1959, 301). Some elements were excluded on some occasions but in general all the parts were present as they are today. Jungmann finds some significant changes to have taken place between the time of Hippolytus in the third century and the records of the sixth century (Jungmann 1959, 302). First, a prayer of thanksgiving specific to every different celebration was develooped. Second, the Sanctus is not mentioned in Hippolytus, though Jungmann thinks it was probably in use (Jungmann 1959, 303). Third, intercessions came to be inserted into the prayers before or after the Sanctus. The words of institution underwent some elaboration as well (Jungmann 1959, 305). In the later Roman tradition additional prayers of commemoration could be added after the consecration (Jungmann 1959, 306).

Jungmann concludes with a brief observation that the Mass, by the sixth century, was a service which well involved the congregation in the fullness of a well-rounded liturgy.

​
0 Comments

Daily Offices

5/12/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
5/12/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Twenty-Two: The Daily Office." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 278-287.

Jungmann asks, based on the centuries of liturgical development, what Christian worship actually looked like by the end of antiquity (Jungmann 1959, 278). It is clear to Jungmann that Sunday was the day of the divine service for the community. In general, each church had one Sunday service, and the Mass would occur. However, Jungmann does not think communion (the Mass) was celebrated on days other than Sundays except on special occasions (Jungmann 1959, 279). There may well have been additional, more private services celebrated in chapels within the churches. There is evidence of settings of the Mass for different purposes.

In public, however, Jungmann finds the development of the canonical hours (Jungmann 1959, 280). Particularly a Matins and Vespers seem to have been commonly used in public worship on the days other than Sunday. This is clear from, among other sources, the developed nature of the canonical hours described in the Rule of St. Benedict (Jungmann 1959, 282). 

Jungmann reviews the specific arrangements of the different offices (Jungmann 1959, 283). They centered specifically around the Scripture readings, a practice which grew from the concept of God speaking to his people by his grace (Jungmann 1959, 284). The essential outline of the liturgy has changed little over the centuries.

​
0 Comments

Development of Christmas Observances

5/5/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
5/5/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Twenty-One: The Christmas Cycle." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 266-277.

Jungmann points out the early similarities between the liturgical functions of Christmas and Epiphany, while observing that neither held the importance in the liturgical year which Easter did in the West. The importance of Chrstmas and Epiphany increased in the liturgy during the fifth century (Jungmann 1959, 266). The Christmas observances were "nocturnal" services, generally beginning in Jerusalem with a pilgrmage to Bethlehem, a mass, then a return at dawn to Jerusalem. This was followed by a rest and another mass (Jungmann 1959, 267). The pattern, though without the town of Bethlehem, was adopted in other locations. By the time of Gregory the Great a third mass was commonly used, at least in the papal chapel and probably elsewhere (Jungmann 1959, 268). 

The development of extended days of holiday celebratin, according to Jungmann, follows a predictable pattern. The celebration first exists on a day, then is observed additionally in some manner a week later. Then it may grow to the "after-celebration" we now see (Jungmann 1959, 269). Examples are Easter with its 50 days and Christmas with twelve days, filling the calendar until the next holiday. Because of this phenomenon, lesser observances are sometimes subsumed into the greater one, with the liturgy and lectionaries blending.

Because feasts tend to lengthen as "after-celebrations" one must ask where Advent came about. Jungmann finds a multiple-week recognition in Gaul in the fourth century (Jungmann 1959, 271). He theorizes that it was related to the so-called "ember days" of December, which were early times of dedication to prayer and fasting for a week in June, September, and December. A prayer vigil was kept the Saturday night of the ember week, taking the place of the regular Sunday service.

The Gallic Advent observance has an earlier and clearer origin than that of the East (Jungmann 1959, 274). By the hear 490 there is a feast which starts November 11 and continues to Christmas. It likely was an actual preparation for Epiphany, celebrated in Gaul before Christmas was a normal event on the calendar. The parallel to the forty day preparation fo Easter is hard to mistake. 

​
0 Comments

Historical Development of Easter

4/28/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
4/28/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Twenty: The Easter Cycle." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 253-265.

The festivals surrounding Easter day have developed ove rthe years, creating a progressively longer and more complex series of liturgical services. Jungmann identifies the central observances in series of three days, originally as the Friday to Sunday period, but then including Maundy Thursday through Saturday, then Sunday through Tuesday (Jungmann 1959, 253). The original triduum is probably most significant as it shaped Lenten observances.

Jungmann observes that a period of Lent lasting forty days was already present by the time of Athanasius (Jungmann 1959, 254). Forty days before Good Friday gives us Sunday of Quadragesima. by the sixth century, Sundays were excluded from the fast. The end was then moved to the start of Easter Sunday. Out of a desire to restore the forty days, the start moved back to Ash Wednesday (Jungmann 1959, 255).

Lent also became a period for special observances. From the start, fasting was considered appropriate. However, additional services of the Mass began to be offered (Jungmann 1959, 256). Jungmann describes some of the variations in Lenten service practices especially in Rome, where some of the daily services were at different churches around the city. It becomes apparent from Jungmann's summary that the period contained an emphasis on catechesis and baptism.

Holy Week itself looks forward to Easter. Jungmann notes that in Jerusalem this took the form of services which were very conscious of the day and hour they celebrated. Romen, however, considers the Passion as a whole (Jungmann 1959, 261). Holy week was, above all, a time of quiet sorrow. 

The weeks following Easter Sunday were early recognized as a time of celebration, lasting seven weeks. Only the first week developed prominence, with special celebration of the conversion which had resulted in baptisms (Jungmann 1959, 264). The remainder of the Easter season was not characterized by particular special celebrations.

​
0 Comments

Means of Forgiveness

4/21/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
4/21/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Nineteen: Baptism and Penance." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 240-252.

Baptism and Penance are especially important to Jungmann, as it is through baptism that converts enter the Church and therough penance that they are restored to their baptismal faith (Jungmann 1959, 240). Jungmann observes that baptism is spoken of much more in the fifth and sixth centuries. However, he considers Tertullian's De Poenitentia to be a work addressing Penance (Jungmann 1959, 241). I observe that Jungmann's understanding of Tertullian may be reading a later, more sacramental, view onto an earlier work. it addresses poenitentia primarily as the start of faith, then hesitates to consider it later in the Christian life due to the aversion to sin which the Christian should naturally have. As a sacrament, Jungmann sees penance as a practice used sparingly for dealing with particularly grave sins (Jungmann 1959, 242). It was essentially equated with a declaration of a fall from the Christian faith and a need for renewed repentance and faith. The liturgy is not very clear. However, Jungmann pieces an understanding together based on the evidence he can find.

The penitent would report to the bishop, either of his own volition or at others' urging. He would be formally excommunicated in a public way, and considered more like a catechumen (Jungmann 1959, 242). The penitent was not allowed to bring offerings or to be present to receive communion. However, he would receive a blessing from the bisohp, and would be required to be present each time the church met throughout the period of penance. At the end of the term of penance, there would be a formal reconciliation and imposition of hands as a sacramental act (Jungmann 1959, 243). This would typically take place in Rome on Maundy Thursday, a significant date for reconciliation and welcoming a saint into the communion fellowship. The Sacramentarium Gelasianum provides a rite of reconciliation dating back to the sixth century, summarized by Jungmann (Jungmann 1959, 244).

Jungmann notes that the penitent would normally not be enrolled in the process until after Pentecost, as the Easter season was not to be a time of penitence (Jungmann 1959, 245). Later, Lent became an official season of penitence, which was particularly fitting to the process.

Different cases were assigned different periods of penance. Regardless of the nature of the sin, the process was one of public confession intended to lead to reconciliation. It did include humbling oneself in very significant ways (Jungmann 1959, 246). Jungmann also notes that the process of penance was to be used no more than once in a lifetime (Jungmann 1959, 247). This led some to postpone penance until the end of life.

Jungmann does note that during the fourth to sixth centuries the Church considered the fact that people enter into sin and have a need for confession and forgivenss, but not necessarily for the process of excommunication and restoration. For this reason, the practice of private or semi-private confession and absolution arose (Jungmann 1959, 247).

A second way of dealing with our sinful nature, by the fourth century, was delay of baptism. Because catechumens were largely accepted as Christians, some shose to remain in that state until late in life (Jungmann 1959, 248). This was not a practice widely accepted by bishops, who advocated infant baptism. For adult converts, a relatively brief period of catechesis was the rule, normally during Lent (Jungmann 1959, 249). 

Jungmann concludes the chapter by observing that infant baptism, originally quite simple in form, because a more complex rite (Jungmann 1959, 250). Though applied to infants, there was a time of catechesis, an imposition of hands, presentation of salt, an exorcism, and an oration. Sponsors or parents would affirm the faith and receite the Creed and the Our Father (Jungmann 1959, 251). 

​
0 Comments

Latin Liturgies

4/14/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
4/14/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Eighteen: The Latin Liturgies." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 227-237.

Jungmann observes that even through the sixth century the centralized organization of liturgy in Rome was not as strong as it is today (Jungmann 1959, 227). In many cases the unity of the Latin langauge was the primary way in which the Church was held together. In general, though, liturgical patterns separated into two regions: that of Rome and North Africa, and that of the rest of Europe.

In the Gallic liturgies, found through much of Western Europe, the basic liturgy was held largely in common, but the forms of the prayers varied from one country to another (Jungmann 1959, 228). The prayers also varied from season to season, unlike those in Rome. Jungmann reviews four liturgical streams in turn: "the Old Spanish, the Gallican, the Celtic, and the Milanese" (Jungmann 1959, 229).

The Old Spanish liturgy, also known as the Mozarabic liturgy, developed and stabilized in the sixth century and featured prayers influenced by the Arian controversy (Jungmann 1959, 229). The region had endured particularly virulent opposition by the Arian Visigoths, who had engaged in persecution of the Catholic Christians. Prayer formulations in particular were used to reject Arian doctrines and to affirm the consubstantiality of the Father and the Son (Jungmann 1959, 230).

The Gallican liturgy, specifically in use in the ancient Frankish territory, was also growing in the fifth and sixth centuries, though most of the documents are from the seventh century (Jungmann 1959, 231). Jungmann observes that rather than using one passage of Scripture as a foundation for a liturgical element, the Gallican liturgy gathers several passages from various locations. As with the Old Spanish liturgy, there are strong anti-Arian elements (Jungmann 1959, 232).

The Celtic liturgy was found especially in the British Isles. Jungmann notes that the Celtic languages were not written languages, and that the liturgy maintained use of the Latin language (Jungmann 1959, 232). We have relatively little documentation of this liturgy except near the end of the seventh century.

The Milanese liturgy, unlike the others, is still in use in an entire ecclesiastical province (Jungmann 1959, 232). In its modern form it has incorporated many elements of the Roman liturgy. However, many of the prayers show their non-Roman roots.

The Romano-African liturgy differs from the Gallic forms. Though we have no comprehensive record from North Africa, many details survive as mentioned by Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine (Jungmann 1959, 234). The structure appars very consistent with that used in Rome. Jungmann points out that the Roman liturgy as it developed was consistent with the third century Greek liturgy, but that it is in Latin, rather than Greek. Jungmann surveys this liturgy in some detail as it is the foundation for what he discusses in the remainder of the book (Jungmann 1959, 234). The source for this study is a "Sacramentarium," which is the book of liturgy used by a priest officiating at a service. We have a seventh century example in the Sacramentarium Leonianum, whith over three hundred mass formularies, mostly for feasts and martyrs' days (Jungmann 1959, 235). A second source, from much the same time period, is the Sacramentarium Gelasianum (Jungmann 1959, 236).
0 Comments

Structure and Character of Eastern Liturgies

4/7/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
4/7/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Seventeen: The Oriental Liturgies." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 210-226.

In this chapter, Jungmann considers the internal structure and theological character of the various Eastern liturgies. His primary interest is in ways the Eastern liturgies are similar to each other and different from the typical Roman liturgy (Jungmann 1959, 210).

According to Jungmann the actual liturgical rites are generally considered more important in the East than they are in the West. In the East, they serve as cultural characteristics, while the West considers them more as a churchly but not national feature (Jungmann 1959, 210). Jungmann sees the cultural element in Eastern Christianity as more important than theological training. As an example, he finds churches in the East to be more influenced by Arianism in their liturgies, while in theWest the liturgy specifically rules out Arian ideas (Jungmann 1959, 211). Jungmann does, however, observe that the Eastern regions kept the early practice of conducting liturgy in the native language of the people, while in the West this was lost through maintenance of Latin after other languages had arisen. In some areas of the East, multiple languages came to be used for different parts of the liturgy (Jungmann 1959, 212). Writing in the 19t0s, Jungmann does suggest that there may come a time when the Roman Church would begin using the vernacular for at least some parts of the divine service (Jungmann 1959, 213).

The Byzantine rite has broad usage in the East, and normally includes some or all elements in the primary or secondary language of the people (Jungmann 1959, 213). In some cases Jungmann finds that archaic or dead languages are used in liturgy, but they were not archaic or dead when they came into use in the liturgy. However, the norm is that the liturgy comes to be celebrated in the common language of the region (Jungmann 1959, 214).

One of the important elements of schisms is theological error. Jungmann observes that though many schisms have been provoked by heresy, in almost every case the liturgy of those in schismatic groups has few traces of heresy (Jungmann 1959, 214).

In general, in the East, communion is not celebrated as frequently as in the West. Specifically, Jungmann notes that in the East the celebration does not occur with the priest alone, but requires the congregation to gather (Jungmann 1959, 215). Additionally, in the East, a deacon serves as a go-between for the priest and the congregation (Jungmann 1959, 216). The deacon leads the people in prayers and the celebration, rather than leaving the congregation as spectators of the prayers.

Another significant difference between Est and West is that in the East there is no offertory procession. Rather, there is a "Great Entry" when the celebrant enters to the altar and prepares the elements of communion (Jungmann 1959, 216-217). Jungmann describes this in some detail.

The form of the epiclesis is also different. In some partsof the East, in the Mass, there was a prayer that God would "send His Holy Spirit over the gifts or into the souls of the recipients" (Jungmann 1959, 218). In the West, however, it is a simpler prayer that God would accomplish his purpose in communion. In Egypt the prayer before the consecration says, "heaven and earth are full of Thy glory . . . Fulfill also this oblation through the descent of Thy Holy Spirit" (Jungmann 1959, 219). The most elaborate, found in the East, stems from a Syrian prayer, indentified near the end of the fourth century.

Jungman considers whether the liturgy is actually unchanging (Jungmann 1959, 221). Counter to the reputation of the Eastern liturgies being very fixed, Jungmann finds them to allow more flexibility than those of the West (Jungmann 1959, 221). The lessons in the East may be up to six. There is great variability. While there is not much singing in the Coptic liturgy, there is a good deal in the Byzantine forms. The prayers in the different rites, as suggested in earlier discussion, have a good deal of variation (Jungmann 1959, 222). However, in the prayers of the Mass, there are anaphoras which are particular to different areas. Jungmann describes a number of the regional anaphoras in some detail (Jungmann 1959, 224-226). 

​
0 Comments

Christianity Sorts by Region and Language

3/31/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
3/31/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Sixteen: Ecclesiastical and Linguistic Provinces." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 200-209.

Jungmann sees travel as characteristic of Christian communities in the early centuries of Christianity (Jungmann 1959, 200). This led to relatively strong unity of practice, as congregations were in communication with one another. However, by the fourth century, distinctives began to emerge, based largely on the size and proximity of congregations to one another (Jungmann 1959, 201). This can be seen by the rise of written liturgies and instructions. 

Another development even from the first century and onward is a fairly clear recognition that certain large churches would have predominance among surrounding churches (Jungmann 1959, 201). Though the major churches were often in prominent cities, and spheres of influence often roughly coincided with civic boundaries, this was not always the case. Bishops normally had a strong influence on the liturgy of the region, as well as on the purity of doctrine (Jungmann 1959, 202).

Jungmann sees diversity of language as an important feature of liturgical development. Though the three most prominent languages were Aramaic, Greek, and Latin, the distinctions were important along linguistic as well as regional lines (Jungmann 1959, 203). Jungmann traces the linguistic groups and their geographical regions in brief. Within the Syriac liturgies, the custom of antiphonal singing and the use of the Gloria Patri with Psalms became very common (Jungmann 1959, 204). Jungmann makes only insignificant comments about Greek and Latin in liturgy, except fo r their ties to Roman or Greek Christianity (Jungmann 1959, 205-206). The existence of Christian traditions in Armenian and the Germanic languages is not overly early. Jungmann tends to blame this on barbaric tendencies among the German people, whom he considers less cultured and also late to adopt Christianity (Jungmann 1959, 207). 

Greek Christianity had a relatively strong linguistic and cultural network, which enabled it to expand fairly quicly (Jungmann 1959, 208).

Jungmann observes that Christianity in the fifth century tended to fragment into language-based groups, not around Greek, Latin, and Aramaic, but around more localized language usage. The liturgies then tended to develop differently in these specific areas (Jungmann 1959, 209). 

​
0 Comments

Arianism and Liturgy

3/24/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
3/24/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Fifteen: Christological Disputes and Their Influence on the Liturgy." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 188-198.

The fourht century saw disputes within Christianity, particularly centered around Christology (Jungmann 1959, 188). These disputes led to some specific choices of wording in prayers and other elements of the liturgy. Jungmann specifically observes that the Arian controversy with its view that God the Son was not eternally existent had a strong influence on prayers. At issue was whether the Son was "honored and adored just like the Father" (Jungmann 1959, 189). The nuance of prayer "through Christ," as used in the canonical Epistles, helps to clarify the equality of Father and Son (Jungmann 1959, 190).

The doxological formulas making specific claims of equality for Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were very common up to the fourth century. Jungmann points out that any omission of this pattern could leave an open door to an Arian view of subordinationism (Jungmann 1959, 192). The Arians would take "through the Son" to express "Him as in some sort of intermediary stage below the Father" (Jungmann 1959, 192).

Because these doxologies could be misunderstood, the word "through" was often replaced with "and." The Father, Son, and Spirit were very specifcally equated so there could be no question (Jungmann 1959, 193). These changes were not without controversy, as critics could say they were innovations and that the confession could be seen as self-contradictory. The liturgical forms did gradually change, and the Arian controversy became less intense by the end of the fourth century. However, Jungmann sees the adjustments as being significant both due to the language used and the fact that developments did not happen uniformly and throughout the whole Church (Jungmann 1959, 194).

The rise of the feasts of Christmas and Epiphany may have had a significant influence on liturgy as well. Jungmann notes that both were widely adopted about the same itme, with Crhistmas first in the West and Epiphany in the Ast (Jungmann 1959, 195). 

Jungmann particularly notes that in the East, Epiphany quickly came to honor not only Christ but also Mary. By the fifth century, the conflict over the Nestorian heresy was based on the result of the incarnation. The dispute eventually took on the form of a question, "Is Mary the mother of Jesus or the mother of God?" The orthodox conclusion was that she would be recognized as the "mother of God" thus affirming that Jesus was one person with a human and a divine nature (Jungmann 1959, 196).

Jungmann finally notes that one result of Arianism was a decrease in the reception of Communion (Jungmann 1959, 197). The emphasis on the exalted nature of Christ led some to conclude they could not approach to receive at His table. This is one of the sadder outcomes, as Jungmann notes a communion rubric saying "Draw near in fear and partake in holiness" (Jungmann 1959, 198). Though Jesus is the mighty God, the Sacrament is to be received.

​
0 Comments

Remembering the Martyrs

3/17/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
3/17/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Fourteen: The Veneration of the Martyrs."The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 175-187.

The testimony of Christians to the surrounding world was always a part of Christian faith and practice. Jungmann notes that this includes bearing witness in the presence of rulers while on trian (Jungmann 1959, 175). Those who died for their faith were naturally honored, as were those "confessors" who had merely been imprisoned or tortured. The custom of an annual commemoration was not uncommon. As with the death of any prominent or beloved person, commemorations became common, as did prayers for the dead or petitions that they would intercede for various causes (Jungmann 1959, 176). Jungmann observes that, because the life and death of a martyr was a concern to the whole church, the commemoration would be more widespread and enduring than that for a family member or friend (Jungmann 1959, 177). There are recorded instances of commemorations as early as the mid second century.

By the fourth century monuments over the graves of martyrs were turned into basilicas, especially around the boundaries of Rome (Jungmann 1959, 178). Additionally, the feast days for sints began to be published as special churchly celebrations. Tertullian speaks of a celebration of a Mass, as well as a vigil (Jungmann 1959, 179). Jungmann notes that while in some cases the Mass itself was unchanged, with only Scripture readings for the martyr being appointed, in other cases the prayers would also be adjusted (Jungmann 1959, 180). Eventually, the prayers which were variable would always be adjusted to have a reference to the martyr of the day (Jungmann 1959, 182).

Jungmann lists a number of indications that the cult of the martyrs was popular. Among other signs, he finds graffiti inscribed on and around the tombs, asking for assistance. Faithful followers were also buried near the martyr (Jungmann 1959, 182). Another interesting custom was the refrigerium, a funeral meal prepared for the dead. Jungmann notes that these celebrations could easily be abused by carousing and heavy drinking (Jungmann 1959, 1830. In more reasoned situations some would prepare a meal and give it to the poor.

The cult of the martyrs also lead to the veneration of relics (Jungmann 1959, 184). Some of the relics of the martyrs took on special connotations and were used as protective amulets (Jungmann 1959, 185). The martyrs and their relics were given great consideration. Jungmann, however, sees the "strange abuses" as emerging in later centuries (Jungmann 1959, 185).

The interactions between the cult of the martyrs and the cults of the dead are complex. The tombs of martyrs and other important dead people were the focus of intense interest and devotion (Jungmann 1959, 186). Moving bodies, body parts, or other relics was often frowned upon or prohibited by law. After the fifth century, though, even Rome, once a holdout, allowed moving or dividing such relics.

​
0 Comments

Church Attendance and Liturgy as Central to Growth

3/10/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
3/10/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Thirteen: The Role of the Liturgy in the Transformation of Pagan Society." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 164-174.

Jungmann sees the fourth century as a time of transformation from a world with a minority Christian population to one dominated by Christianity. He asks, therefore, what role the Christian liturgy may have played in this process (Jungmann 1959, 164). The influx of people departing from paganism would influence some customs of the church. At the same time, the walk of Christians, influenced by liturgy, would have an effect on the pagan society.

Jungmann asserts an unequivocal view. "The formative power of the liturgy was both profound and vast" (Jungmann 1959, 165). Christianity birthed a society which was different in many ways from the paganism which had previously held sway.

Jungmann seems almost surprised to note that the fourishing of a Christian society happened in a time without Christian schools or a highly developed view of the care of souls (Jungmann 1959, 165). Rather, catechesis took place in families and the power of the living liturgical language, practiced in the congregation, transformed lives (Jungmann 1959, 166-167). Extensive Scripture readings, typological interpretations, and use of Psalms engaged the congregation with many biblical concepts. Learning parts of the Scripture by heart is certainly of great value. 

In addition to extensive exposure to Scripture, the liturgy teaches people to pray. The participatory nature of liturgical prayer engages the congregation directly in prayer (Jungmann 1959, 169). 

Along with participation in prayers, Jungmann thinks the regular participation in the Sacrament was very important. Not only did the people bring bread and wine in the offering, but they received nourishment for their faith through the Sacrament. The Sacrament was celebrated every Sunday and on some other occasions. Bringing the lements to the altar in a procession underlined the congregant's participation in the Eucharist (Jungmann 1959, 171). Furthermore, the very words and actions in the Eucharist taught about central doctrines of the Church. This served to build unity of the Christian faith (Jungmann 1959, 172).

All Christians were expected to attend Sunday worship reliably. Jungmann sees evidence of this as early as 200, with actual edicts requiring attendance by the very early 4th century (Jungmann 1959, 173).

​
0 Comments

Collision of Christianity and Culture

3/3/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
3/3/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Twelve: Pagan and Christian Mysteries." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 152-163.

Jungmann has earlier discussed pagan civil and cultural influences on Christian liturgy, observing that they were not able to change actual form or content of Christianity. When considering the pagan mystery religions and their possible influence on liturgy, particularly on the Eucharist, the debate has been particularly active (Jungmann 1959, 152). Jugnmann observes that the original view of the sacraments had very little contact with the pagan mysteries, and that the overall concepts were different in their essence (Jungmann 1959, 153). However, he intends in this chapter to discuss the alleged analogies in some detail.

The theoroy of Dom Odo Casel, O.S.B., was that "the mysteries provided a sort of providential preparation for the sacramental idea presented by Christianity" (Jungmann 1959, 153). Therefore, the pagan mysteries provided people with a framework by which, when presented with a Christian view of grace, they would already be prepared to receive.

Among the Greeks, and later the Romans, some mystery cults performed special rites to one or another deity, seeking favor after death (Jungmann 1959, 153). They had secret rites of initiation followed by "a ritual enactment of the death and return to life of the god, this enactment being carried out in such fashion as to make the initiate in some way a partaker of the life of the god" (Jungmann 1959, 154). The cults would then continue to re-enact scenes from that deity's mythology. Jungmann finds traces of these cults as early as the classical age.

Because the mysteries were tied to a hope in the afterlife, they attracted many adherents. The Church Fathers would maek statemens calling people to the true mysteries, where life could actually be found (Jungmann 1959, 155).

Jungmann evaluates potential influence of mystery cults on Christianity in three separate periods: the apostolic period, the early patristic period, and the time when paganism was in decline (Jungmann 1959, 157-158). During the apostolic age, the use of the word μυστήριον was common in Christian thought, but always in the singular, referring to God's desire to save the world. In paganism, the mystery cults were always referred to in the plural. Jungmann therefore sees little interaction (Jungmann 1959, 158).

In the patristic period, authors made specific attacks on the pagan mysteries. The authors consider the mysteries to be taking claims of Christianity and perverting them (Jungmann 1959, 158).

Beginning in the fourth century, paganism was in decline and no longer represented a threat to Christian teaching. At this time, the Christian authors start appropriating terms such as initiation and gide of mysteries to their own purposes. It is at this point that Jungmann considers the mysteries could have an influence on liturgy (Jungmann 1959, 159). At this point, some practices, such as baptism, the consecration of the Eucharist, and the Lord's Prayer, were kept secret from those who were not baptized. Jungmann considers that this may have primarily been a matter of the culture which guarded access to sacred things.

Because the mystery religions represented an attempt to overcome death, and particularly to do it by way of resurrection, Casel's suggestion was the Christianity, though different in its essential beliefs, had enough similarities in its liturgical practices that it could easily beseen as the truthful fulfillment of what the msyteries suggested (Jungmann 1959, 160).

Jungmann observes that the similarity only applies to the sacraments, not to the liturgy as a whole. Casel's argument is based on whether or not the sacrament actually brings the past action of Christ to life as a present reality. This can be illustrated in the Church Fathers, but it may not necessarily be definitively proven (Jungmann 1959, 161-162). Jungmann observes that in many circuels the Sacraments were seen as relatively abstract and symbolic until the early 20th century. The renewal of the sacraments as specifically effectual and active is a move to a greater similarity of view to that of the mystery religions (Jungmann 1959, 162-163). 

​
0 Comments

Selective Use of Cultural Elements

2/24/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
2/24/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Eleven: The Impact of Paganism on Christian Worship." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 122-151.

With the fourth century Christianity took on a new challenge. Jungmann asserts that, "As a result of the 'Constantinian Peace,' there began a great mass-movement of people from all classes towards Christianity. Among these new converts were not only people of a deeply religious nature, but also the timid and the weak who wished to join because it was now an advantage to be a Christian" (Jungmann 1959, 122). With the emperor apparently being supportive of Christianity the Church and the secular culture, which entertained pagan ideas, were forced into close contact.

The place of worship, now constructed more like a public building than previously, gradually took on more of the trappings of the royal building implied by the name "basilica" (Jungmann 1959, 123). Rather than being an elaborate and oranate structure, it tended to be a large, inviting, and peaceful place.

Music and singing were also held in contrast to the culture as a whole (Jungmann 1959, 124). The pagan offerings would always be accompanied by music and especially singing. Christian worship, in comparison, was not oriented around extensive singing, and instruments were not used (Jungmann 1959, 124). Jungmann does observe that various early authors discussed different modes of singing. Some were simpler than others (Jungmann 1959, 125).

Services in churches took place mainly in the native language of the area or using a language common to all groups in the area. In Rome they were Latin. In many other parts of the Empire, they would be conducted in Greek, since most churches were in areas colonized by Greeks (Jungmann 1959, 125). By the fourth century the Latin influence grew. Jungmann also sees elements of prayers and philosophical statements from the non-Christian world entering into Christian worship (Jungmann 1959, 126). The motifs found in artwork, too, suggest elements common to pagan art, especially depictions of natural elements, but also mythic characters standing in relation to Christian symbolism (Jungmann 1959, 127).

The traditional greeting of a kiss seems to have come into Christianity from the pagan culture (Jungmann 1959, 128). Jungmann notes in Chirstian practice it expanded to a kiss from the priest to the altar and to other holy objects. Likewise, the dismissal, "ite, missa est," was a common way to dismiss a group (Jungmann 1959, 129).

The imperial court customs also had an influence on Christian practice. In the period before Constantine Christians would be very careful not to acknowledge Caesar in any way in speech or action. However, in Constantine's time, bishops would be given honors similar to judges. They were seen as high officials (Jungmann 1959, 131). Honorifics were then accorded to bishops, in a way Jungmann finds very similar to those given to secular authorities (Jungmann 1959, 131). The use of lights and incense are also carried over from the Roman imperial court, which preserved the practice from the senate and the consul. Jungmann traces its use in kingly courts even to the 1930s (Jungmann 1959, 132).

Jungmann finds pagan religious elements in Christian worship as well. It was no surprise to see cultural customs which may have had few hints of religious significance. However, the Church had always avoided any elements of pagan religion. Jungmann's conclusion is that "either these were made at a time when paganism no longer held sway and the danger of a pagan interpretation was either eliminated or minimized; or else they involved border-line cases, matters touching only on the external organization of worshiop, or formalities capable of different interpretation and of becoming vehicles of Christian ideas" (Jungmann 1959, 134).

Christians typically have turned toward the east while praying. Jungmann observes that virtually every civilization does so, normally because the rising sun brings life and is seen as a sign of divinity (Jungmann 1959, 134). Jews historically turned toward Jerusalem. However, Christians did not do so, because the second coming of Christ is understood to be from the east (Jungmann 1959, 135). Further, Christ is the light of the world, so is seen as the rising sun. When Romans took on the concept of the emperor as the "unconquered sun" the Christians reaffirmed that Jesus is the unconquered one, rising like the sun (Jungmann 1959, 136). This led, in time, to the actual orientation of church buildings, with the congregation facing an altar at the east. In cases of a church not oriented this way, the prayers would still be made facing east (Jungmann 1959, 137).

Christians continued theRoman practice of giving a baby milk and honey as a sign of acceptance and nurture. They also provided a drink of milk and honey to newly baptized Christians before the reception of communion. The symbolism, however, was that of bringing the convert into a land flowing with milk and honey (Jungmann 1959, 139). 

In the Eastern Church, a bride and groom wear a wreath of flowers. While in paganism the wreath was to ward off evil spirits, Christians repurposed it as a sign of victory over impurity (Jungmann 1959, 140). The sign has changed, now normally being a crown in the east and disappearing in the west, but it was retained at least to the 9th century.

A pagan burial included a sacrifice for the dead as well as a ceremonial meal. While in Christian tradition there is no concept that the dead participates or that there is a sacrifice to a pagan god, but the sacrament is often celebrated, along with a meal for the living at which they remember the dead (Jungmann 1959, 140-141). 

The calendar of Christianity, according to Jungmann, has some traces of paganism. Some social and civic forms were certainly retained as Christianity became dominant. For instance, pre-Christian traditions often included the third, the seventh or ninth, and the thirtieth or fortieth day after death for special commemorations (Jungmann 1959, 142). Christians have often done the same. The cultural concept was strong enough that it was retained, though not for theological reasons. After early attempst to teach against the customs, most Christians kept the cultural rhythm, while rejecting the original cultural reasons (Jungmann 1959, 144). Likewise, a number of days of special praers occur on dates and for purposes similar to those of Roman paganism, but with distinctive Christian prayer. The date and the recurring concern was retained but the act of worship takes place from a Christian perspective (Jungmann 1959, 145).

Jungmann does include in these festivals December 25, which was brought into Roman observance as the day of "Sol Invictus" by the emperor Aurelian after 274. Jungmann finds the first indication of December 25 as Christ's birthday in 354 (Jungmann 1959, 148). He does, however, note that the concept of Christ as the light of the world was related, and that there is some evidence for a celebration before 312. Epiphany, he says, may also have been related to a solstice observance which eventually settled on Januay 6.

​
0 Comments

Gnosticism and Christianity

2/17/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
2/17/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Ten: The Defense against Gnosticism." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 109-120.

According to Jungmann it is no surprise that Gnosticism would impact Christian theology, but we need to also note its impact on liturgy, though we would be less likely to assume it existed (Jungmann 1959, 109). He begins by describing paganism and Montanism as enemies of Christianity, before moving on to the role of Gnosticism.

Persecution of the pagan state rose and fell. Jungmann observes that Christians offered little resistance to persecution and that Christianity continued to grow, despite persecution (Jungmann 1959, 109). 

Montanism typically claimed prophecy, rather than tradition or heirarchy, to be the leading impulse toward purification of the Church (Jungmann 1959, 110). By about 200 orthodox Christians recognized that Montanist ideas would pull the Church awy fom her foundations and result in a separatist and isolationist sect.

Gnosticism, in Jungmann's estimation, was far more dangerous. Coming from pre-Christian philosophical roots, it taught a way of salvation which could be confused with the Christian message (Jungmann 1959, 110). The resulting dualism, based on a desire for release from the material world, removed "the Supreme Deity" from all material things (Jungmann 1959, 111). Gnosticism would typically attempt to remove the material elements of Chrsitianity, rather reshaping Christian ideas into Gnostic systems.

The contempt showed for the flesh in Gnostic systems especially results in attacks on the incarnation (Jungmann 1959, 112). Jesus had to be presented as something other than God, or alternatively, as not a true human. This was an unacceeptable point of view for the Church Fathers, who fought for the full acceptance of God the Son as having a genuine human nature (Jungmann 1959, 113). Jungmann notes that this is at the same time that the Apostles' Creed was developing. Its emphasis on the real humanity of God the Son stands in opposition to Gnostic influence (Jungmann 1959, 114). Gnosticism continued to show more contempt for the material world throughout the second century.

Jungmann observes that the earliest records we have of Christian worship show a separation from materialism, local loyalties, and shows of artistry such as musical performance. However, near the end of the second century,, the concrete and material elements became more important in worship (Jungmann 1959, 115). This may well reflect a rejection of Gnostic ideas. Particularly in the Eucharist we see the emphasis on both spiritual and material elements (Jungmann 1959, 116). The offertory, particularly involving bread, wine, and prayers, becomes an essential element in liturgy, representing our offering of material elements to God (Jungmann 1959, 117).

Church architecture was also develooping through the second century. Jungmann notes that the bishop, or the celebrant, was normally placed at the central location, while the altar was not. "The altar is not an essential element in Christian worship . . . while the celebrant (bishop or priest) is. Furthermore, the celebration of the Eucharist took place only once a week, in one short hour of the Sunday. And during this hour, it was the lessons, with the appertaining prayers and the bishop's homily, which surely took the most time" (Jungmann 1959, 119). The altar, in fact, was not itself ornate, but was furnished with precious cloths, but not until the end of the "Fore-Mass." Gradually, the altar took on greater physical importance. Jungmann suggests this was a reaction to the anti-material biases of the Gnostics (Jungmann 1959, 120). 

​
0 Comments

Pausing for Prayer

2/10/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
2/10/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Nine: Daily Devotions of the Early Christians." The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 97-108.

Though there are voices which suggest the entirety of early Christian life revolved around the corporate celebration of liturgy, Jungmann considers them to be incorrect (Jungmann 1959, 97). The Gospels are clear that we should expect to be involved in a life of private prayer. Jesus particularly taught his disciples both about assembling and praying privately. Further, Jungmann considers that mass gatherings may have been dangerous (Jungmann 1959, 98). The earliest of the patristic writings also prescribe prayers, typically three times a day, a custom Jungmann sees as individual prayer times which eventually grew into the liturgical hours. The observances at the third, sixth, and ninth hours of the day are clearly shown in Scripture as times when individuals would engage in prayer (Jungmann 1959, 99). Tertullian adds mention of prayers upon awakening and at bed time, as if they were so common as to have been taken for granted. He also considers a prayer in the middle of the night to have been customary (Jungmann 1959, 100). Early commentators make some mention of the customs and even the content of some of the prayers. However, Jungmann does not consider the comments very prescriptive or detailed (Jungmann 1959, 102). A seventh time of prayer may also have emerged, at the cock's crow, not the regular time to arise (Jungmann 1959, 103). The themes of the various times of prayer become associated with the hours. Jungmann sees numerous medieval sources which do just that (Jungmann 1959, 104). The growth of monasticism finished the task of making the liturgical hours a matter of corporate prayer (Jungmann 1959, 106).

Jungmann further suggests that Constantine's edict of toleration led to a greater freedom for Christians to assemble for corporate prayer. This may have moved Christians to gather at different times in the day at a central location (Jungmann 1959, 106). Hippolytus does speak of regular gatherings for catecehsis. The meeting would be presided over by a clergy member and would be open to all the congregation (Jungmann 1959, 107). Evening prayer services with a meal were also customary at this time. While times of persecution would interrupt the practice, it would resume when the persecution died out (Jungmann 1959, 108). 

​
0 Comments

Catechesis and Baptism

1/27/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
1/27/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Seven: Baptism and Preparation for Baptism."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 74-86.

Jungmann sees Christianity as growing very strong in the third century. "In 250, it is stated that the Roman community regularly supported 1500 poor; hence the faithful altogether must have numbered many tends of thousands. At the time of Diocletian's persecution, there were as many as forty basilicas in the city" (Jungmann 1959, 74). Jungmann does not cite a source for this information. However, on the next page he does reference Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten (1902). Jungmann does suggest, though, that judging from Hippolytus' Church Order, the stringent conditions to be admitted to catechesis may have been related to the growth. The standards may have shown potential adherents they needed to be serious (Jungmann 1959, 75). Jungmann describes Hippolytus' intervie wprocess in brief.

Catechesis was also challenging. It typically lasted three years, focused on moral trial and an entry into the corporate life of the Church (Jungmann 1959, 77). The candidate for baptism could then be examined, then enter into theological studies in the period leading up to Easter (Jungmann 1959, 78). Then, in the time shortly before baptism, the candidate would participate in special prayers, fasting, and exorcisms. Baptism would take place in a night vigil. This would include the adult catechumens and children who may not have been old enough to answer for themselves (Jungmann 1959, 79). 

The baptism of infants was common. Jungmann describes a controversy in northern Africa about the year 250, in which a bishop Fidus taught that parents should wait until the eighth day after birth, to parallel circumcision. A synod of 66 bishops "unanimously decided that no one should wait till the eighth day, but that the babies of Christian parents should be baptized immediately" (Jungmann 1959, 80).

The baptism included a renunciation of Satan, a profession of faith and a triple immersion (Jungmann 1959, 81). Jungmann does note that infusion rather than immersion is allowed in the Didache (Jungmann 1959, 82). Jungmann describes the steps of baptism in some detail (Jungmann 1959, 83-84). After baptism, the neophytes would enter into a period of catechetical instruction, normally for about a week (Jungmann 1959, 85).

​
0 Comments

Eucharistic Liturgy of the Third Century

1/20/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
1/20/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Six: The Eucharistic Liturgy of the Third Century."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 52-73.

Jungmann considers Hippolytus' Apostolic Tradition to be critical to our understanding of liturgy in the 3rd century. Most of his works that we know were found during the 19th century, thus enabling greater ability to investigate practices of his time (Jungmann 1959, 52).

The critical information Jungmann refers to may be considered "church orders," which classification largely depends on the reconstructive work of Dom R.H. Connolly (Jungmann 1959, 54-55). Jungmann is particularly interested in book eight of the Apostolic Constitutions, containing the "Clementine Liturgy" (Jungmann 1959, 55).

Hippolytus' iApostolic Tradition describes "rites and regulations of the Church as he knew them" (Jungmann 1959, 57). Jungmann, dating this work about 217 or a little earlier, does not take it to be necessarily a complete historical picture, but does consider it an accurate conception of liturgy in the late second century or early third century.

Jungmann summarizes the content of apostolic Tradition in some detail, dividing it into three parts. The first pertains to consecration of bishops and ordination or appointment of various officers. This section includes a detailed description of the Mass for a new bishop (Jungmann 1959, 59). The second part includes reception of converts. The third describes the Christian life. Jungmann particularly details the status of widows and virgins, who are recognized by Hippolytus as bearing responsibilities and some level of authority, but who are not to be elevated to positions of rulership (Jungmann 1959, 61-62). 

The selection and consecration of a bishop receives a very detailed description in Apostolic Tradition (Jungmann 1959, 62). The prayers of consecration are given in full for both bishops and deacons. Ordination is accompanied by a laying on of hands, which is reserved for those being ordained (Jungmann 1959, 63).

The texts of the prayers for the Eucharist are not fixed at the time of Hippolytus. Jungmann observes that we had previously seen this at the time of Justin Martyr. Though suggested wording is given, Hippolytus is clear that there is Room for variation in the actual words (Jungmann 1959, 65). Jungmann provides a Latin text of the eucharistic liturty (Jungmann 1959, 67-68), then observes that the tone of thanksgiving leads us directly to the concept of the Mass as "eucharist." Of great importance is the fact that the institution is built into the prayer of thanksgiving (Jungmann 1959, 68). Jungmann considers this an important issue, in which he contends that Dix is incorrect to say that the institution was not a necessary part of the sacrament (Jungmann 1959, 69).

Jungmann speaks of the Eucharist as an offering, in contrast to the 16th century Reformers. However, he does so on the basis of Hippolytus' statement "Memores igitur mortis et resurrectionis eius offerimus tibi" (Jungmann 1959, 69). He concludes that this is the language of offering. Counter to this, this reader would observe that in the prayer we offer "memories" rather than any sort of sacrifice. The issue to the Reformers was more likely the Roman concept of the sacrificial language, which implies that in the Eucharist we re-sacrifice Christ. Junamann's argument is that "offering" implies a sacrifice and that the Reformers rejected all concept of our offering anything to God.

Jungmann notes that in Hippolytus there are many of the elements of prayer which are central to the modern Mass, though in abbreviated form (Jungmann 1959, 70). In the modern Mass, various insertions are made, such as the intercessions for the whole Church. There is, however, no Sanctus, though it is alluded to by both Tertullian and Origen (Jungmann 1959, 71).

Jungmann finally observes that in the Euchraistic prayer, Hippolytus describes not only Christ's suffering for us but also his victory over death on our behalf and our eschatological hope. This is the same overall picture which is described in the Church year and even in the rhythm of the Christian life each week (Jungmann 1959, 72). 

​
0 Comments

Early Views of the Eucharist

1/13/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
1/13/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Five: The Celebration of the Eucharist in the Writings of the Apologists."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 39-49.

Jungmann notes that among the early Christians the term "eucharist" is taken to indicate both the Sunday gathering and the sacrament itself. He asserts but does not document that "the action is called a sacrifice" (Jungmann 1959, 39). Justin's First Apology (ca. 150) describes a baptism, the Eucharist, and the whole of the Sunday service (ch. 65) (Jungmann 1959, 40). Jungmann particularly observes the threefold act of preparation. Fist there is a common prayer, participated in only by the faithful (Jungmann 1959, 41). Based on the record of prayer in the Didache one could easily conclude that this is the prayer we know as the Lord's Prayer. Second is the kiss of peace. Jungmann considers this to foreshadow the conciliatory nature of the Eucharist. The final element is the offering, which is brought to the one standing in front of the congregation, presumably the bishop. Bread, wine, and water are brought.

In Justin's First Apology chapter 67 there is a description of a Sunday service without a baptism. The Euchraistic prayer and communion are clearly present (Jungmann 1959, 42). By this time, at least in Justin's experience, the Sacrament was received every Sunday. Chapter 66 describes bread and wine as body and blood, and that the prayer of thanksgiving holds a performative force (Jungmann 1959, 43).

The entire service is pervaded with thanksgiving, as God has rescued his people out of the darkness of this world and into his light (Jungmann 1959, 44). ungmann illustrates the distinction between paganism and Christianity at some length.

The concept of sacrifice, though present as early as the Didache (ch. 14) was not emphasized in the second century (Jungmann 1959, 46). Jungmann suggests that sacrifice and thanksgiving may not have been understood as mutually exclusive. Even prayers can be seen as offering a gift to God (Jungmann 1959, 47). Jungmann grants that the thanks we give to God are not at all comparable to his gift to us. Yet they are what we can give. Jungmann also points out that Christian sacrifices are not blood offerings. They are spiritual in nature (Jungmann 1959, 48). Finally, our giving of thanks in the Eucharist is a memorial of Jesus' sacrifice for us. When we give thanks we are participating in his sacrifice.

​
0 Comments

The Breaking of Bread

1/6/2021

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
1/6/21

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Four: The Breaking of Bread: The Oldest Form of Eucharistic Service."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 29-38.

Acts 2:42, 2:46, 20:7, and 1 Corinthians 10:16 make it clear that a Eucharistic celebration, the breaking of the bread, was at the center of early Christian worship. Jungmann sees this as a direct continuation of the events in the Last Supper. He also sees it as distinct from a meal, saying "nowhere is there evidence that in profane speech the expression 'breaking bread' ever meant 'having a meal' (Jungmann 1959, 29). Though it requires some speculation, from the few early accounts we can draw some conclusions about the Eucharist.

Jungmann notes that in 1 Corinthians the Eucharist was associated with a meal. Paul's exhortation to the Corinthians was not to change the meal, but to avoid abuses in the meal. A celebratory meal was a common theme in Jewish thought and made sense in the context of a messianic celebration (Jungmann 1959, 30). Because of the association of the Last Supper with Passover, most would view the Eucharist as related somehow to the Paschal meal, but with some added sacramental significance. However, Jungmann suggests it is more likely to be related to the Jewish custom of a Sabbath evening meal (Jungmann 1959, 31). The breaking of bread and praise to God was at the start of a meal, while a "cup of blessing" came near the end. The ritual, as Jungmann sees it, may have been literally surrounding a meal, as suggested by Luke and Paul who specify the cup is "after it has been eaten." It may also have been one event, without a meal in the middle, as suggested by Matthew and Mark, who make no mention of "after it has been eaten" (Jungmann 1959, 32). In the end, the meal may have been omitted, leading to the liturgy we retain to the present. Jungmann cites Dix and his analysis of the seven liturgical actions in the liturgy as an authority on early practice (Jungmann 1959, 32).

Jungmann notes that in Hippolytus' Church Order the newly baptized receives first bread, then a chalice of milk and honey, which is a traditional meal for a newborn. They then receive water, which recalls washing, then they receive the wine. This practice was still known in Rome as late as 215 (Jungmann 1959, 35). The Didache also makes statements about the practice of communion, which would be applicable to a slightly private gathering as well. The prayers are suited to a Eucharistic meal of some substance (Jungmann 1959, 36). 

The words of institution bear comment. Jungmann observes that in the Gospels and in 1 Corinthians they are recorded differently. He suggests this is a reflection of differing liturgical usage in different communities. The sacrament is the same but the words which introduce it may have some variation (Jungmann 1959, 37). 

​
0 Comments

The Lord's Day

12/30/2020

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
12/30/20

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Three: Sunday and Easter in the Primitive Church."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 19-28.

Jungmann observes that the earliest Christians retained the idea of a seven day week byt transferred the emphasis from the Sabbath to the first day. He cites 1 Corinthians 16:2 as an example of Christians using the Sunday as the foundation of their calendar (Jungmann 1959, 19). The Sunday was not considered a replacement Sabbath, but the Lord's day, the celebration of Christ's resurrection. Didache 14.1 makes it clear that was the day for meeting and receiving the Eucharist (Jungmann 1959, 20). Jungmann illustrates the concept of a Lord's day being Sunday and no other day.

Jungmann notes a tendency in early Christianity to call Sunday the eighth day, thus avoiding the idea that the Sabbath, as the last day of the week, was the climax (Jungmann 1959, 22). Church fathers then proceeded to see the number eight as a sign of resurrection and renewal. The pagan reference to the day of the sun, while not approved by Christians, was soon taken as a reminder that Christ is the sun of righteousness who rises and brings light and life (Jungmann 1959, 24).

Jungmann contends that Easter was early recognized as coming from apostolic practice. He sees it as the direct continuation of the Passover (Jungmann 1959, 25). The debate about it in the second century was based on whether the date of 14 Nisan was the proper day or if it should be celebrated on the Sunday afte rthat  date (Jungmann 1959, 25-26). Jungmann describes the challenge caused by the interaction of the Jewish lunar calendar and the Julian calendar. In the end, the church, at least in the West, celebrates Easter the Sunday after 14 Nisan.

The Easter celebration was divided into two portions, the passion and resurrection. The first part, primarily penitential, began on Friday. On Sunday morning, the celebration of resurrection began with the reception of the Eucharist (Jungmann 1959, 27). The celebration then continued with no fasting through the fifty days until Pentecost.

The period of fasting before the celebration of Easter developed after the recognition of Pentecost. Jungmann bases it on the idea that the disciples would fast when the Bridegroom, Christ, is away. Having calculated this to be 40 hours, the Christian community took up a 40 day fast time before Easter for special devotion, and the 40 hours before the resurrection in complete fasting (Jungmann 1959, 28). 

​
0 Comments

A Community of Worship

12/23/2020

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
12/23/20


Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter Two: The Church as a Worshipping Community."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 10-18.

Jungmann sees Jesus' teaching to have a primary goal of enhancing personal piety. Yet he allows that there was a distinctive type of liturgy in use, particularly surrounding the temple worship (Jungmann 1959, 10). John 4, along with Romans 12, may suggest the temple worship and its forms will come to an end, to be replaced by a more self-mediated type of worshiop. Jungmann sees this as the conclusion of the Jews against Stephen in Acts 6-7 (Jungmann 1959, 11). Yet Jungmann is clear that the individual elements of worship do not preclude the existence of a Church, founded by Jesus, with visible attributes, assembly, and liturgy (Jungmann 1959, 12).

The early Christians clearly assembled together. Jungmann commends the letters of Ignatius to the Ephesians and to the Smyrnans. He also endorses the chapter in Dix' The Shape of the Liturgy (1945) on the pre-Nicene liturgy (Jungmann 1959, 12). Hostility toward Christians may have been based in large part on their rejection of civic gatherings and their practice of assembling together (Jungmann 1959, 13). The earliest Christians, as attested in Acts, assembled in individual houses. Jungmann suggests archaeological evidence that there were known houses in Rome which served as churches from the very early times. By about the year 200 there were buildings clearly owned by the Church, used for assemblies (Jungmann 1959, 14). 

The use of the catacombs bears brief discussion. Jungmann observes that these were most common only in Italy and served as burial sites. They were not well suited for assemblies due to the cramped spaces. A congregation would assemble rather in a house with a spacious atrium (Jungmann 1959, 15). Again, Jungmann refers to Dix as an authroity on places of Christian worship (Jungmann 1959, 15).

Jungmann does point out the fact that Christian worship was very different from pagan worship. "The Christian church is constructed for community meetings, whereas the pagan temple - whether that of early Babylon, or the temple built by Greek and Roman civilizations - was essentially intended as a dwelling of the deity" (Jungmann 1959, 16). The places used were correspondingly different .Christianity takes the assembled community as a primary attribute, rather than something happening by chance (Jungmann 1959, 17).

​
0 Comments

Liturgy as the Link to Historic Christianity

12/16/2020

0 Comments

 
Wednesday is for Bits and Pieces
12/16/20

Jungmann, Josef A., S.J.  "Chapter One: Introduction: History, the Present and the Future."  The Early Liturgy to the Time of Gregory the Great. (translated by Francis A. Brunner, C.S.S. R., Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959, pp. 1-8.

Jungmann considers that an evalution of history is necessary to develop a valid evaluation of the present or to mark projections of the future (Jungmann 1959, 1). The study of liturgy is very important in this regard, not the least because Christians are still engaged with liturgy on a day to day basis. Finding the roots of modern practices can help us understand the overall structure of the Christian life (Jungmann 1959, 2). 

The study of history of liturgy was sparked by the events of the Reformation, at which time apologists sought out sources of more current practices (Jungmann 1959, 3). However, Jungmann notes we have somewhat defective information from early Christianity. Not much was written about the actual liturgy, presumably because it was known through practice. However, Jungmann sees the skepticism of the 19th century as impetus for additional study (Jungmann 1959, 4). The documents discuvered and analyzed at the end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th century serve to connect ancient and modern worship.

Jungmann considers the most important sources of information to be in Justin's Apology, chapters 65-67, in the Apostolic Constitutions from the fourth century, from the Mystagogic Catecheses of Jerusalem, often appearing along with catecheses of Cyril of Jerusalem (Jungmann 1959, 5), and Ambrose's De Sacramentis. These sources were known before the 19th century. In more recent discoveries, Jungmann finds the Didache, Hippolytus' Tradition Apostolica, Serapion's Euchologica, including a complete text of a Mass, an anonymous work called the Peregrinatio Aeteriae, which describes church services from about the year 400, and Theodore of Mopsuestia's Catecheses (Jungmann 1959, 6, along with a fifth century Testamentum Domini Nostri Jesu Christi (Jungmann 1959, 7) to be essential. Jungmann further recommends the work of Johannes Quasten, particularly Monumenta eucharistica et liturgica vetustissima in the Florilegium Patriscticum series (Bonn, 1937) (Jungmann 1959, 7). 

Jungmann concludes that the study of historical liturgy allows us to rightly understand the past so as to carefully guide the future.

​
0 Comments

    ​Help Fuel This Ministry by Clicking Here!

    All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!
    Please Note: The opinions presented in blog posts are not necessarily those of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry. Frequently we report on contrary views, often without comment. Please chime in on the discussion.

    About Throwing Inkwells

    When Martin Luther was dealing with struggles in his life he once saw what appeared to be an angelic being. Not trusting that he was going to be informed by someone other than the God revealed in Scripture, he took the appearance to be untrustworthy and hurled his inkwell at it. The chipped place in the plaster wall is still visible at the Wartburg Castle, though apparently the ink stain on the wall has been refreshed periodically by the caretaker.

    Blog Feeds

    RSS Feed

    Want to keep up with what's happening at Wittenberg Door? Subscribe to our mailing list!

    Categories

    All
    1 Corinthians
    1 John
    1 Kings
    1 Peter
    1 Samuel
    1 Thessalonians
    1 Timothy
    2019-02-feb
    2 Chronicles
    2 Corinthians
    2-john
    2 Kings
    2 Peter
    2 Samuel
    2 Thessalonians
    2 Timothy
    3-john
    Academic-success
    Acts
    Advent 1
    Advent-1-a
    Advent-1b
    Advent-1c
    Advent 2
    Advent-2-a
    Advent-2b
    Advent-2c
    Advent 3
    Advent-3-a
    Advent-3b
    Advent-3c
    Advent 4
    Advent-4-a
    Advent-4b
    Advent-4c
    Akagi 2016
    Alesso-2009
    Alexander 1999
    Allegory
    Allitt-2010
    All Saints' Day
    Alon 1996
    Amos
    Anaphora
    Anointing
    Anunciation
    Apollinaris Of Hierapolis
    Apostolical Constitutions
    Aristides Of Athens
    Aristotle
    Aryeh 2021
    Ascension Day
    Ash Wednesday
    Athenagoras Of Athens
    Audet 1996
    Augustine
    Bakker 1993
    Balabanski 1997
    Bammel 1996
    Baptism
    Baptism Of Christ
    Baptism-of-the-lord-b
    Bardy 1938
    Baron 2019
    Baron & Maponya 2020
    Bauckham 1984
    Bauckham 2006
    Bauckham 2007
    Beale 1984
    Belief
    Belonging
    Ben-Amos 1999
    Betz 1996
    Biesenthal 1893
    Bigg 1904
    Bigg 1905
    Blogcation
    Blomberg 1984
    Boehme-2010
    Botha 1967
    Botha 1993
    Braaten 2007
    Bruce1988
    Bruce-1988
    Bryennios
    Butler 1960
    Caneday 2017
    Canonicity
    Capon1998
    Capon-1998
    Carr 2010
    Carson-1991
    Carson-moo-2005
    Catholicism
    Cerfaux 1959
    Chilton 1984
    Chrismation
    Christmas-1b
    Christmas-1c
    Christmas Dawn
    Christmas-day
    Christmas Eve
    Christmas Midnight
    Chronicles
    Circumcision And Naming Of Christ
    Cody 1995
    Colossians
    Conditions
    Confession Of Peter
    Confessions
    Connolly 1932
    Connolly 1933
    Connolly 1934
    Constanza-2013
    Cooper & Lioy 2018
    Costa 2021
    Court 1981
    Culley 1986
    Cyprian
    Daly 1978
    Daniel
    Danielou 1956
    Davids 1984
    Davis 1995
    DeHalleux 1996
    Dehandschutter 1995
    Deuteronomy
    Didache
    Diversity
    Divine Fellowship
    Dix 1933
    Dix2005
    Dix-2005
    Doane 1994
    Draper
    Draper 1984
    Draper 1989
    Draper 1995
    Draper-1996
    Draper-1997
    Draper-2000
    Draper-2006
    Dube 2016
    Due 2003
    Easter-2
    Easter-2a
    Easter2b
    Easter-2c
    Easter-3
    Easter-3a
    Easter-3b
    Easter-3c
    Easter-4
    Easter-4a
    Easter-4b
    Easter-4c
    Easter-5
    Easter-5a
    Easter-5b
    Easter-6
    Easter-6a
    Easter-6b
    Easter-6c
    Easter-7
    Easter-7a
    Easter-7b
    Easter-7c
    Easter-b
    Easter-day
    Easter-monday
    Easter-sunday-a
    Easter-sunday-c
    Easter-sunrise
    Easter-tuesday
    Easter-wednesday
    Ecclesiastes
    Eleutheria2014
    Elman-1999
    Ephesians
    Epiphany
    Epiphany-1c
    Epiphany-2-a
    Epiphany-2c
    Epiphany-3-a
    Epiphany-3b
    Epiphany-3c
    Epiphany-4-a
    Epiphany-4b
    Epiphany-4c
    Epiphany-5-a
    Epiphany-5b
    Epiphany-5c
    Epiphany-6-a
    Epiphany-6c
    Epiphany-7-a
    Epiphany-c
    Epistle Of Barnabas
    Esther
    Eucharist
    Eve-of-the-circumcision-of-christ
    Exodus
    Exodus-20
    Experiential Reading
    Eybers 1975
    Ezekiel
    Ezra
    Fagerberg1988
    Fagerberg-1988
    Farrell-1987
    Flew-2007
    Flusser-1996
    Forde-2007
    Fraade-1999
    France-2007
    Galatians
    Garrow 2004
    Gender
    Genesis
    Gero 1977
    Gibbins 1935
    Gibbs 2006
    Glover-1958
    Goga & Popa 2019
    Gonzalez-2010
    Good-friday
    Gospels
    Grosvener-schaff-1885
    Grosvenor-1884
    Guardian-of-jesus
    Habakkuk
    Haggai
    Hagner 1984
    Harnack-1884
    Harris 1887
    Harris 1984
    Hearon 2004
    Hearon 2010
    Hebrews
    Heilmann 2018
    Henderson1992
    Henderson-1992
    Henderson 1995
    Hezser 2010
    History
    Hoffman-1986
    Holy Cross Day
    Holy-innocents
    Holy-saturday
    Horsley 2010
    Hosea
    Hutchens2013
    Hymes-1994
    Ignatius Of Antioch
    Infertility
    Isaiah
    Jaffee-1999
    James
    James Of Jerusalem
    James The Elder
    Jefford 1989
    Jefford 1995
    Jeffreys-1986
    Jeremiah
    Jerome
    Job
    Joel
    John
    Jonah
    Jones & Mirecki 1995
    Joseph
    Joshua
    Jude
    Judges
    Jungmann-1959
    Justin Martyr
    Kelber-1987
    Kelber-1995
    Kelber 2002
    Kelber 2010
    Kelber & Sanders 2010
    Kevil
    Kings
    Kleinig-2013
    Kloppenborg 1979
    Kloppenborg 1995
    Koch2010
    Kok 2015
    Kolb2000
    Kolb-2000
    Kolbarand2008
    Kolb-arand-2008
    Kurekchomycz2009
    Lake 1905
    Lamentations
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-a
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-b
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-c
    LaVerdiere 1996
    Layton 1968
    Lectionary
    Lent-1
    Lent-1-a
    Lent-1b
    Lent-1c
    Lent-2
    Lent-2-a
    Lent-2b
    Lent-2c
    Lent-3
    Lent-3-a
    Lent-3b
    Lent-3c
    Lent-4
    Lent-4-a
    Lent-4b
    Lent-4c
    Lent-5
    Lent-5-a
    Lent-5b
    Lent-5c
    Lessing2014
    Lessing-2014
    Leviticus
    Lincoln-1885
    Lindemann 1997
    Literary Character
    Liturgy
    Livesey 2012
    Long-2009
    Lord-1986
    Lord-1987
    Lord's Prayer
    Luke
    Luther
    Maas-2014
    Maccoull-1999
    Maier 1984
    Malachi
    Manuscripts
    Mark
    Marty-2016
    Martyrdom Of John The Baptist
    Martyrs
    Mary Magdalene
    Mary Mother Of Our Lord
    Mason-1998
    Massaux 1993 (1950)
    Matthew
    Matthias
    Mazza 1995
    Mazza-1996
    Mazza 1999
    Mbamalu 2014
    McDonald 1980
    McDonnell & Montague 1991
    McKean 2003
    Mcknight-2014
    Micah
    Middleton 1935
    Milavec 1995
    Milavec-2003
    Milavec2012
    Miller 2019
    Missional
    Mitch-2010
    Mitchell 1995
    Molina-evers-1998
    Monday-in-holy-week
    Montenyohl-1993
    Morris-1992
    Motyer-1993
    Mueller-2006
    Muilenburg 1929
    Music
    Nahum
    Nehemiah
    Neufeld-1999
    Newsletter
    Newtestament
    New Testament
    Niditch-1995
    Niditch 2003
    Niebuhr 1956
    Niederwimmer-1982
    Niederwimmer 1995
    Niederwimmer-1996
    Numbers
    Obadiah
    Oldtestament
    Old Testament
    Olsen-1986
    Ong-1987
    Ong-1988
    Ong-1995
    Oralit
    Orality
    Ordination
    Orphan-hosting
    Osborne-2002
    Osborne-2013
    Ozment1980
    Ozment-1980
    Palm-sunday
    Palm-sunday-a
    Palm-sunday-c
    Pardee 1995
    Parks-1986
    Passionb
    Patterson 1995
    Pearce-1993
    Pentateuch
    Pentecost-10a
    Pentecost-10b
    Pentecost-10c
    Pentecost-11a
    Pentecost-11b
    Pentecost-11c
    Pentecost-12a
    Pentecost-12b
    Pentecost-12c
    Pentecost-13a
    Pentecost-13b
    Pentecost13c
    Pentecost-13c
    Pentecost-14a
    Pentecost-14b
    Pentecost-14c
    Pentecost-15
    Pentecost-15a
    Pentecost-15b
    Pentecost-15c
    Pentecost-16
    Pentecost-16a
    Pentecost-16b
    Pentecost-16c
    Pentecost-17a
    Pentecost-17b
    Pentecost 17C
    Pentecost-18a
    Pentecost-18b
    Pentecost 18 C
    Pentecost-19a
    Pentecost-19b
    Pentecost 19 C
    Pentecost-1a
    Pentecost-20a
    Pentecost-20b
    Pentecost 20 C
    Pentecost-21a
    Pentecost-21b
    Pentecost 21 C
    Pentecost-22a
    Pentecost-22b
    Pentecost 22 C
    Pentecost-23a
    Pentecost-23b
    Pentecost 23 C
    Pentecost-24a
    Pentecost-24b
    Pentecost-24-c
    Pentecost-25b
    Pentecost-25-c
    Pentecost-26b
    Pentecost-26-c
    Pentecost-2a
    Pentecost-2b
    Pentecost-2c
    Pentecost-3a
    Pentecost-3b
    Pentecost-3c
    Pentecost-4a
    Pentecost-4b
    Pentecost-4c
    Pentecost-5a
    Pentecost-5b
    Pentecost-5c
    Pentecost-6a
    Pentecost-6b
    Pentecost-6c
    Pentecost-7a
    Pentecost-7b
    Pentecost-7c
    Pentecost-8a
    Pentecost-8b
    Pentecost-8c
    Pentecost-9a
    Pentecost-9b
    Pentecost-9c
    Pentecost-b
    Pentecost-c
    Pentecost Eve
    Pentecost Monday
    Pentecost Sunday
    Pentecost Tuesday
    Petersen 1994
    Peterson2010
    Peterson-2010
    Philemon
    Philippians
    Philosophy
    Picirilli 1988
    Pick 1908
    Pieper1924
    Pieper 1924
    Pieper 1968
    Piper 1947
    Powell 2000
    Prayer
    Preaching
    Presentation Of Our Lord
    Proctor 2019
    Proper-19c
    Proper-20c
    Proper 21C
    Proper 22C
    Proper 23C
    Proper 24C
    Proper 25C
    Proper 26C
    Proper 27C
    Proper 28C
    Prophets
    Proverbs
    Psalm
    Psalms
    Quinquagesima
    Quintilian
    Rabbinic Character
    Real Presence
    Receptivity
    Reed 1995
    Reformation
    Reformation Day
    Reinhartz 2018
    Resurrection
    Revelation
    Rhetoric
    Rhoads 2010
    Richardson & Gooch 1984
    Riggs 1995
    Ritual Meal
    Romans
    Rordorf 1996
    Rosenberg 1986
    Rosenberg 1987
    Rosenfeld-levene-2012
    Rueger-2016
    Russo 1994
    Ruth
    Sacrament
    Sacrifice
    Saenger 1999
    Sailhamer1992
    Sailhamer-1992
    Sale 1996
    Samuel
    Scaer2004
    Scaer-2004
    Schaff 1886
    Schaff 1888
    Schaff 1889
    Schaff 2014
    Schaff-2014
    Schollgen
    Schwarz 2005
    Scriptural Usage
    Seeliger 1996
    Septuagesima
    Sermon
    Sexagesima
    Simon And Jude
    Smith-2009
    Smith 2018
    Sommerville-2006
    Songofsongs
    St. Andrew
    Stark 1997
    St. Barnabas
    St. Bartholomew
    St. John
    St. John The Baptist
    St Luke
    St Mark
    St Matthew
    St. Matthias
    St Michael And All Angels
    St. Paul
    St. Peter And Paul
    St Philip And St James
    Strawbridge 2017
    St. Stephen
    St. Thomas
    St. Titus
    Sunday Of The Passion
    Tatian
    Taylor 1888
    TDNT
    Teaching
    Telfer 1939
    Tertullian
    Textual Comparison
    Textual Integrity
    Theophilos 2018
    Theophilus Of Antioch
    Thielman-2010
    Thursday In Holy Week
    Timothy
    Titus
    Transfiguration
    Transfiguration-a
    Transfigurationb
    Transfiguration-c
    Trinity 1
    Trinity 10
    Trinity 11
    Trinity 12
    Trinity 13
    Trinity 14
    Trinity 15
    Trinity 16
    Trinity 17
    Trinity 18
    Trinity 19
    Trinity 2
    Trinity 20
    Trinity 21
    Trinity 22
    Trinity 23
    Trinity 3
    Trinity 4
    Trinity 5
    Trinity 6
    Trinity 7
    Trinity 8
    Trinity 9
    Trinity-a
    Trinity-b
    Trinity-c
    Trinity Sunday
    Tsang 2009
    Tuckett
    Tuesday In Holy Week
    Tuilier 1995
    Twelftree 1984
    Two Ways
    Ty 19
    Van Der Merwe 2017
    Van Der Merwe 2019
    Van Der Watt 2008
    Van De Sandt 2002
    Van De Sandt 2007
    Van-de-sandt-2010
    Van-de-sandt-2011
    Van De Sandt & Flusser 2002
    Van Deventer 2021
    Varner 2005
    Veith1993
    Veith-1993
    Veith-sutton-2017
    Vikis-Freibergs 1997
    Visitation
    Voobus 1968
    Voobus 1969
    Warfield 1886
    Wasson & Toelken 1998
    Wednesday In Holy Week
    Wenham 1984
    Wenham 1992
    Weston-2009
    Wilson2011
    Wilson-2011
    Wilson20113470b5cf10
    Wolmarans 2005
    Wright 1984
    Young 2011
    Ysebaert-2002
    Zechariah
    Zephaniah

Proudly powered by Weebly