Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry
  • Home
  • Calendar
    • Calendar
    • Events
  • Blog
  • Recording Archives
  • Resources
    • Bible Study - John's Gospel
    • Greek Tutorials
  • About
    • About Wittenberg CoMo
    • Support Us
    • Contact Us
  • Position Papers
  • Sandbox

Storytelling as Migratory Flight

1/8/2021

0 Comments

 
1/8/21
Friday's Orality/Rhetoric Lesson

Ben-Amos, Dan. "Jewish Folk Literature." Oral Tradition 14:1 (1999), 140-274.

Ben-Amos observes that Jewish folklore is a primarily oral tradition which has developed in many nations, with independent strands. In this lengthy article he traces some of those strands (Ben-Amos 1999, 140).

The Hebrew Bible records numerous instances of storytelling, both spontaneous and more formal and historical in nature. The ritual historical narration is evidenced, among other places, in Deuteronomy 6:21 and Exodus 13:8, where people are told to tell particular events to their family members (Ben-Amos 1999, 141). Ben-Amos gives examples of particular speakers or singers are noted in Numbers 21:27, Ezekiel 21:5, Jeremiah 9:16, 1 Samuel 19:36, Ezra 2:41, and Nehemiah 12:28. (Ben-Amos 1999, 142). There are examples of oral proverbs which were part of a body of proverbs well known. Pieces of narrative are repeated in the Hebrew Bible, indicating that themes and stories were used and re-used. Ben-Amos gives numerous examples of passages where events are told and re-told. Not only is this tradition evident within the Hebrew Bible, but Ben-Amos identifies a number of themes which are very common in oral traditions of the Ancient Near East (Ben-Amos 1999, 143-144). He further notes that patterns typical of oral poetry appear frequently within the Psalms and the Prophets.

The apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha also contain many elements of folklore (Ben-Amos 1999, 144-145). Though the works are considered to be outside of canonical use, and contain what Ben-Amos would consider "sectarian views," some certainly come from Jewish communities and provide exmaples of folklore. As primarily written documents, these works are more generally tied to a literate tradition. However, even these primarily written documents bear marks of orality. They "bear the stamp of cultural or sectarian ideas that share a broad social basis; they cannot, therefore, be grounded in the imagination of a single author" (Ben-Amos 1999, 146). Some of the narratives consist of tales of biblical figures. Others make particular associations of biblical figures with locations (Ben-Amos 1999, 146-147).  Particularly in the books of Maccabees some of the material is legendary in nature. The stories themselves seem rooted in oral tradition and then are used in later oral traditions (Ben-Amos 1999, 148). Ben-Amos also observes that there are a few "fictive folktales" which take biblical characters or settings and built a tale around them.

Oral tradition within Jewish folklore "during the first six or seven centuries CE in Jewish societies in the Land of Israel and in Babylon" is sometimes referred to as "the oral Torah" (Ben-Amos 1999, 149). While the written Torah is recognized as the Scriptures, the oral Torah describes Jewish culture. For that reason, it bears an authority of its own (Ben-Amos 1999, 150). This oral tradition was used to teach and preserve a popular culture, primarily through a body of storytelling. Ben-Amos sees this oral culture as an integral part of maintenance of a distinctive Jewish society (Ben-Amos 1999, 151). Ben-Amos even notes that there were rabbis and other "professional memorizers" who would memorize both the written Scripture and the oral tradition in detail (Ben-Amos 1999, 152). Ben-Amos notes several narratives which apparently have a fairly long history in oral tradition but which were written down only in recent centuries. 

Ben-Amos describes the oral exposition of Hebrew Scripture as fitting into three (not mutually exclusive) modes. "In the interpretive mode, speakers often clarify obscurities and inconsistencies and propose causes or motivations for actions" (Ben-Amos 1999, 153-154). For instance, the interpreter may build the discussion between Cain and Abel leading up to the death of Abel. This activity may apply both to Torah and to the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. Using the "expansive mod" the situation is made larger, with more details and characters. In the "associative" mode, different passages would be related to one another. Ben-Amos considers this to be limited in its scope. "Interpreters conceived of the entire Scripture as a closed system, and projected into it their own traditional associations" (Ben-Amos 1999, 155). The oral exposition extended to all sorts of events, including the destruction of the first Temple and its place on the calendar (Ben-Amos 1999, 157). 

The Rabbinical period gives us the Talmuds and the Midrashic books. Ben-Amos notes that these have narratives from the "tannaim" from the first and second centuries, often told by the "amoraim," rabbis from the third through sixth centuries (Ben-Amos 1999, 158). Many of the Talmudic events focus on events and people from Palestine. Narratives tend to center around major characters who are "holy men, rabbis, and martyrs" (Ben-Amos 1999, 159). Not all the tales are strictly historical. "In the Jewish tradition narrators do not distinguish between fictive and historical tales, the one exception being sheer tall tales. From the narrators' perspectives all stories, the biographical as well as the miraculous, are true. The narrative interpretation, expansion, and association of biblical events and figures take the biblical text as evidence for their veracity, and therefore they too are true" (Ben-Amos 1999, 161). Some narrators, however, do make specific reference to particular political events. These narratives may be seen as more reliable historically. 

Ben-Amos shows that the oral tradition in Jewish society does "include humorous tales, parables, and proverbs" (Ben-Amos 1999, 162). The use of humor was considered important in breaking down tensions and preparing people to receive lessons. The tales are typically told as truth, but they would never be considered anything but a falsehood. Parabolic tales are common, drawing figurative language from the natural world. Linguistic analogies often appear in these parables. They would be recognized as not literally true but as stories which express a truth (Ben-Amos 1999, 164).  Ben-Amos notes that some of the parabolic oral tradition shows clear reference to Aesopic fables. The traditions also tend to refer such parables to specific historical or political situations (Ben-Amos 1999, 165). The oral tradition also represents many quotations of proverbs, normally validating a position. The authority of the tradition is emphasized by citation of one or more proverb which demonstrates the point of view (Ben-Amos 1999, 166). 

Ben-Amos further shows that Jewish society has a history of particular formal occasions for telling particular types of tales, as well as the reading of particular texts from the Scripture. Citing Nehemiah 8:1-2, he observes that the reading of Torah was accompanied by oral interpreation (Ben-Amos 1999, 167). The Talmud does distinguish between that which is oral and that which is written, prohibiting recitation by memory of Scripture and recitation by reading of oral traditions. The storytelling of rabbis is a common element in the Tamuds, as Ben-Amos illustrates with numerous passages.  

Ben-Amos details some of the practices of the synagogue, in which there were reading and sermons. Some preachers were known to be exciting, others not. The rise of the synagogue did develop different branches of oral tradition, some more concerned with the law and othes more concerned with folklore (Ben-Amos 1999, 168). While the teaching of the law was considered more important than the folklore, both were important elements in the culture. Ben-Amos considers that the oral and literary pursuits tended to overlap with one another. This reader would take his statements to indicate that the rabbis who were involved in the folklore were still literate. 

The oral tradition within Judaism is described by a significant vocabulary, indicating different genres. Ben-Amos describes a number of these genres. Some are essentially exegetical in nature (Ben-Amos 1999, 170). Other categories include fables, exaggerations, poetic examples, and stories of tricksters. Ben-Amos observes that there are many different types of spoken genres, not all of which are given names (Ben-Amos 1999, 171).

The medieval period in Jewish oral and literary work begins with the Arab conquest of the seventh century. Though collections of works continued to be made, and new compositions arose, Ben-Amos sees the type of composition changing to a greater emphasis on the biblical texts (Ben-Amos 1999, 172). The tradition was essentially retold, in several ways. "The retelling of tradition involved decentralization, individualization, linguistic diversity, generic and thematic expansion, and the adaptation of new literary modes of presentation" (Ben-Amos 1999, 173). Ben-Amos approaches those in turn.

As the Jewish communities spread, the literature was less focused in Palestine. Oral traditions and folklore came from different parts of the world, particularly Babylonia (Ben-Amos 1999, 173). Ben-Amos notes that some of the material from these different communities were in Hebrew and some were in the local languages. 

By individualization, Ben-Amos means that there were citations of sources of materials, as well as some suggestions to the history of a tale's transmission (Ben-Amos 1999, 174-175). The voices involved in a story would be identifiable. 

Though much literature and oral tradition maintained the use of Hebrew, Ben-Amos notes that local languages, and hybrid languages including elements of Hebrew and a local language would be used in the medieval period (Ben-Amos 1999, 176). The Hebrew alphabet was used, though the language might not be Hebrew. Ben-Amos discusses in brief a number of different texts in these combinations of languages. Some were based on oral tradition, while others were based on literary traditions. 

The genres and themes of medieval Jewish folk literature expanded considerably as well. International folktales came into the literary tradition. Ben-Amos suggests they were previously known and told, but in the medieval period these tales from different nations were written for preservation (Ben-Amos 1999, 178). These tales are varied and abundant. In the same general theme, we find folk literature translated from other languages, mostly into Hebrew (Ben-Amos 1999, 180). Another theme which arises frequently is that of history. The accounts may be family histories, local information, or be related toJewish interests particularly (Ben-Amos 1999, 181). Ben-Amos provides numerous examples of these accounts.

The shift of presentation in the medieval period allowed for both oral and literary use of framed narratives rather than materials which were based on existing texts (Ben-Amos 1999, 183). Ben-Amos sees this as an important move, as it led to the rise of independent stories. Though they would regularly be tied in some way to a pre-existing theme, they might not have such a clear dependence. 

Magical texts also arise in the middle ages. Ben-Amos cites Exodus 20:7 to suggest "that the priests neither condoned nor eradicated the use of magic in Israelite society. The same attitude, with the same results, prevailed in later periods" (Ben-Amos 1999, 184). In practice, some magic practitioners were active. Ben-Amos finds literature including incantations as well as magical prescriptions, or charms (Ben-Amos 1999, 185). In this literature, the material is taken from Scripture but is rearranged in such a way as to make it unrecognizable. The power is seen to come from the original context. Ben-Amos suggests the most common methods would be by reversing letters or makeing collections of letters such as an anagram. It could be deciphered by someone who understood the original reference. This led to complex systems of symbolic numbers and letters, as well as combinations of words thought to have power.

The development of the printing press and the expulsion of Jews from Spain, both events in the 15th century, had a profound influence on Jewish literature of the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries. Ben-Amos observes that printing of Hebrew books began by the end of the fifteenth century (Ben-Amos 1999, 186). This may well have led to an increase in the creativity of writers, who thought they could be made visible to additional readers. They tended to do so by retelling biblcal events but dressing the characters and settings in a modern style (Ben-Amos 1999, 187). Personalities and events would be recreated in the contemporary manner. For instance, members of royalty were uniformly considered demonic. Important individuals would be assumed to have special magical powers. In 1492 Jews were expelled from Spain, although they had been "an integral part of the Spanish social, cultural, and economic fabric of life" (Ben-Amos 1999, 190-191). Their removal from Spain urged a sense of nostalgia which caused oral tradition to flourish. Ben-Amos finds this to be especially the case in therms of folk music. Ballads were well enough known that a brief reference to a first line was adequate to remind the singer of the tune and structure (Ben-Amos 1999, 191). 

Ben-Amos observes another move to record Jewish folklore, this in the 19th and 20th centuries. This has contineud up to the time of the article, in 1999 (Ben-Amos 1999, 193). The rise of Hasidic traditions in eastern Europe roughly coincides with the work of Jacob and Wilhem Grimm. The tales collected in the Hasidic tradition include themes current to the composition (Ben-Amos 1999, 194). Publication of some of the Judeo-Spanish materials also began in the late 19th century. Ben-Amos considers this to be likely primarily motivated by hope of economic gain (Ben-Amos 1999, 195). The Iraqi Jewish community is the oldest found outside of Israel. Ben-Amos reminds the reader that it is the source of the Babylonian Talmud (Ben-Amos 1999, 196). The mid 19th century saw numerous manuscript publications of Iraqi Jewish tales, though they were in manuscript, as there were no Jewish printing presses located in Iraq. Some did come into print, published in India, near the end of the 19th century (Ben-Amos 1999, 197). Ben-Amos notes that in Kurdistan and Yemen there were very low rates of literacy and, though there were Jewish folk tales, they were rarely reproduced in written form (Ben-Amos 1999, 199-200). However, after the establishment of national Israel, the Yemeni immigrants to Israel did tend to bring their folk tales into written form. In contrast to this phenomenon, in the North African countries, where literacy has historically been fairly high, oral materials were typically retained in oral form rather than being written (Ben-Amos 1999, 200-201).

Research into Jewish oral literature began in formal terms during the 19th century, with the work of Rabbi Nachman Krochmal. "According to his view, the aggadah revealed the essential tenets of Judaism to the unlettered folk" (Ben-Amos 1999, 201). Ben-Amos further notes Leopold Zunz as an early luminary in the field. Scholarly study of Jewish folklore in Germany attracted the interest of writers and poets as well, who became interested in the different shades of cultural meaning which could be found not only in German works but in those of other areas (Ben-Amos 1999, 202). This also led to an awakening interest in the Yiddish language, which was recognized as a language which could be used for sophisticated literature and poetry (Ben-Amos 1999, 203). Collection of folklore and the re-identification of heroic figures as spiritual people rather than warriors characterized much of the work of the German Jewish folklorists. The discipline flourished especially toward the end of the 19th century and into the beginnning of the 20th century, when many works were published (Ben-Amos 1999, 204). In the wake of World War II, research activities resurfaced in Israel and the United States. In this period, the study of Jewish folklore became an international pursuit, with significant growth in Eastern Europe and tracing of migrations of Jewish communities (Ben-Amos 1999, 205). 

Ben-Amos further observes that studies of Jewish oral tradition also "shifted the scholarly perspectives on Jewish life. No longer solely pious, spiritual, and religious - since print reflected 'Jewishness' - oral traditions present the secular dimension of cultural life, not the least of which included fantastic, demonic, bawdy, and erotic elements" (Ben-Amos 1999, 206). The folktales deal with all sorts of elements of life and community, including those which are not exclusively directly connected wit hthe religious faith. 

Ben-Amos notes that in recording of Yiddish oral tales, many of which had been published in Jewish communities in Eastern Europe, the narrators told stories which would differ somewhat from those "told" in print under "the controlling normative influence of the learned rabbis, printers, and editors" (Ben-Amos 1999, 208). The collectors were then able to identify international qualities and types of tales which went beyond the bounds of any one locality. A significant portion of this work involved the identification of Sephardic folktales which came from the Iberian peninsula. The forms which could be identified were no longer in use in Spain, but had migrated with the Jewish folklore (Ben-Amos 1999, 209). Likewise, some folktale forms from Iraq and Yemen migrated to Israel in and after 1948. Particularly important are traditional forms of hagiography, which came from medieval Jewish and Arabic traditions and moved from the areas dominated by Islam to Israel (Ben-Amos 1999, 210). 

In the creation of the State of Israel, a restoration of Hebrew folkore took on greater importance.For this reason, publication and republication of narratives which were presented in Hebrew rose to prominence (Ben-Amos 1999, 211). In this regard, Ben-Amos speaks frequently of collectors who "recorded" texts. This reader could wish he were specific whether the recording in this period was an audio recording or a recording in print In whatever way it was done, though the collections of oral materials have been significant (Ben-Amos 1999, 212). Ben-Amos finds that the last third of the 20th century has seen "a growing polarization in Israeli society between secular and religious Jews" (Ben-Amos 1999, 214). While the secularists tend to engage in jokes, tales of woe, and local legends, the religiously oriented Jews have tended to move back to religious topics. 

Ben-Amos recognizes folk songs as a different literary concept from folk tales. Scholarship pertaining to folk songs rose at the same time as the scholarship which worked with folk tales. Again, the texts tend to migrate from orality to literacy and back (Ben-Amos 1999, 214). However, folk songs have not proven as likely to be expressed in print. Again, it is not entirely clear whether the 20th century preservation of folk songs has been in print or in audio recording, though Ben-Amos does mention "musical broad sheets of the 'Tenement Songs'" (Ben-Amos 1999, 215). The Judeo-Spanish poetry and folk songs have been the subject of extensive research. "Thematically speaking these poems range from tales of Spanish heroic epics, French Carolingian narratives, and historical and biblical ballads, to the whole gamut of romantic relations" (Ben-Amos 1999, 216). The themes are not the same as those of the midrashic literature. While some biblical stories do appear, the stories and themes are rarely the same in the two types of literature. Ben-Amos notes that "study of Judeo-Arabic oral poetry is in its inception" (Ben-Amos 1999, 217). The analysis thus far has focused on musical features and not the features of texts. Hebrew folk songs have arisen since the establishment of National Israel. Ben-Amos observes that these songs are slightly artificial because they didn't necessarily spring naturally from a culture. Many have been created to stabilize the culture, and have been distributed by means of schools and political movements, rather than flowing more naturally through families (Ben-Amos 1999, 218). 

Yiddish is a language which lends itself very naturally to proverbs. These have been collected extensively in the late 19th century and through the 20th century (Ben-Amos 1999, 219). Ben-Amos finds in many of these proverbs a force of wit and character which is attractive to non-Jewish cultures as well. The use of proverbs is not limited to Yiddish, though. It has been identified in much the same form in Judeo-Spanish works, leading to independent collections of the proverbs in the Jewish-Spanish communities (Ben-Amos 1999, 220). Judeo-Arabic proverbs are likewise used extensively. Ben-Amos considers the tradition to have arisen there "from biblical and talmudic-midrashic sources" (Ben-Amos 1999, 221). Hebrew proverbs are also common. However, Ben-Amos sees this study as a specially challenging discipline. In Hebrew, proverbs cross both boundaries of language and type of literature, as Hebrew is used as both a sacred and a vernacular language. 

Riddles are often considered children's games. For this reason, Ben-Amos finds that recording and analysis of riddles in Yiddish, Judeo-Spanish, and Judeo-Arabic is very rare (Ben-Amos 1999, 223). What does surprise Ben-Amos is that riddles are a common feature of Arabic medieval literature and folklore, but are almost entirely lacking in Jewish folklore of the Arabic territories. In sharp contrast, riddles appear frequently in Hebrew literature, though they have not been studied in a significant way (Ben-Amos 1999, 224). 

The use of humor in Jewish socieites has been a matter of debate. Some scholars have considered Jews to be lacking in humor, while others, especially in the 20th century, have considered Jewish humor to be of a certain, oddly self-deprecating type (Ben-Amos 1999, 225). Ben-Amos concludes that Jewish humor in general fits into the mold of that of many ethnic minorities. The humor tends to represent the experiences common to those who are marginalized.

The experience of the Holocaust was a particularly fertile ground for Jewish folklore (Ben-Amos 1999, 226). Not only did East European Jews engage in their folklore as they always had, but they also created new idioms, codes, and legends which would contribute to their cultural survival. Folklorists also entered material which might have been lost into journals. Hebrew terms were often substituted for Yiddish terms which would be recognizable to speakers of German, thus making the speech less intelligible. 

Jewish poets and writers played a leading role in 20th century folklore research. Ben-Amos finds them important particularly because of their ability to creatively express the heart of their culture in terms which could be grasped by the general public. "They considered folklore to be a source of cultural renewal, searching for themes that would replenish their imagination and offer their urban intellectual readers a revived contact with the tradition they left behind and from which they had already alienated themselves (Ben-Amos 1999, 229). Ben-Amos finds that the literary figures were more comfortable in print, rather than making recordings of folk songs or folktales. The poets and writers rather rewrote tales or alluded to them in their stories (Ben-Amos 1999, 231). 

​
0 Comments

    ​Help Fuel This Ministry by Clicking Here!

    All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!
    Please Note: The opinions presented in blog posts are not necessarily those of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry. Frequently we report on contrary views, often without comment. Please chime in on the discussion.

    About Throwing Inkwells

    When Martin Luther was dealing with struggles in his life he once saw what appeared to be an angelic being. Not trusting that he was going to be informed by someone other than the God revealed in Scripture, he took the appearance to be untrustworthy and hurled his inkwell at it. The chipped place in the plaster wall is still visible at the Wartburg Castle, though apparently the ink stain on the wall has been refreshed periodically by the caretaker.

    Blog Feeds

    RSS Feed

    Want to keep up with what's happening at Wittenberg Door? Subscribe to our mailing list!

    Categories

    All
    1 Corinthians
    1 John
    1 Kings
    1 Peter
    1 Samuel
    1 Thessalonians
    1 Timothy
    2019-02-feb
    2 Chronicles
    2 Corinthians
    2-john
    2 Kings
    2 Peter
    2 Samuel
    2 Thessalonians
    2 Timothy
    3-john
    Academic-success
    Acts
    Advent 1
    Advent-1-a
    Advent-1b
    Advent-1c
    Advent 2
    Advent-2-a
    Advent-2b
    Advent-2c
    Advent 3
    Advent-3-a
    Advent-3b
    Advent-3c
    Advent 4
    Advent-4-a
    Advent-4b
    Advent-4c
    Akagi 2016
    Alesso-2009
    Alexander 1999
    Allegory
    Allitt-2010
    All Saints' Day
    Alon 1996
    Amos
    Anaphora
    Anointing
    Anunciation
    Apollinaris Of Hierapolis
    Apostolical Constitutions
    Aristides Of Athens
    Aristotle
    Aryeh 2021
    Ascension Day
    Ash Wednesday
    Athenagoras Of Athens
    Audet 1996
    Augustine
    Bakker 1993
    Balabanski 1997
    Bammel 1996
    Baptism
    Baptism Of Christ
    Baptism-of-the-lord-b
    Bardy 1938
    Baron 2019
    Baron & Maponya 2020
    Bauckham 1984
    Bauckham 2006
    Bauckham 2007
    Beale 1984
    Belief
    Belonging
    Ben-Amos 1999
    Betz 1996
    Biesenthal 1893
    Bigg 1904
    Bigg 1905
    Blogcation
    Blomberg 1984
    Boehme-2010
    Botha 1967
    Botha 1993
    Braaten 2007
    Bruce1988
    Bruce-1988
    Bryennios
    Butler 1960
    Caneday 2017
    Canonicity
    Capon1998
    Capon-1998
    Carr 2010
    Carson-1991
    Carson-moo-2005
    Catholicism
    Cerfaux 1959
    Chilton 1984
    Chrismation
    Christmas-1b
    Christmas-1c
    Christmas Dawn
    Christmas-day
    Christmas Eve
    Christmas Midnight
    Chronicles
    Circumcision And Naming Of Christ
    Cody 1995
    Colossians
    Conditions
    Confession Of Peter
    Confessions
    Connolly 1932
    Connolly 1933
    Connolly 1934
    Constanza-2013
    Cooper & Lioy 2018
    Costa 2021
    Court 1981
    Culley 1986
    Cyprian
    Daly 1978
    Daniel
    Danielou 1956
    Davids 1984
    Davis 1995
    DeHalleux 1996
    Dehandschutter 1995
    Deuteronomy
    Didache
    Diversity
    Divine Fellowship
    Dix 1933
    Dix2005
    Dix-2005
    Doane 1994
    Draper
    Draper 1984
    Draper 1989
    Draper 1995
    Draper-1996
    Draper-1997
    Draper-2000
    Draper-2006
    Dube 2016
    Due 2003
    Easter-2
    Easter-2a
    Easter2b
    Easter-2c
    Easter-3
    Easter-3a
    Easter-3b
    Easter-3c
    Easter-4
    Easter-4a
    Easter-4b
    Easter-4c
    Easter-5
    Easter-5a
    Easter-5b
    Easter-6
    Easter-6a
    Easter-6b
    Easter-6c
    Easter-7
    Easter-7a
    Easter-7b
    Easter-7c
    Easter-b
    Easter-day
    Easter-monday
    Easter-sunday-a
    Easter-sunday-c
    Easter-sunrise
    Easter-tuesday
    Easter-wednesday
    Ecclesiastes
    Eleutheria2014
    Elman-1999
    Ephesians
    Epiphany
    Epiphany-1c
    Epiphany-2-a
    Epiphany-2c
    Epiphany-3-a
    Epiphany-3b
    Epiphany-3c
    Epiphany-4-a
    Epiphany-4b
    Epiphany-4c
    Epiphany-5-a
    Epiphany-5b
    Epiphany-5c
    Epiphany-6-a
    Epiphany-6c
    Epiphany-7-a
    Epiphany-c
    Epistle Of Barnabas
    Esther
    Eucharist
    Eve-of-the-circumcision-of-christ
    Exodus
    Exodus-20
    Experiential Reading
    Eybers 1975
    Ezekiel
    Ezra
    Fagerberg1988
    Fagerberg-1988
    Farrell-1987
    Flew-2007
    Flusser-1996
    Forde-2007
    Fraade-1999
    France-2007
    Galatians
    Garrow 2004
    Gender
    Genesis
    Gero 1977
    Gibbins 1935
    Gibbs 2006
    Glover-1958
    Goga & Popa 2019
    Gonzalez-2010
    Good-friday
    Gospels
    Grosvener-schaff-1885
    Grosvenor-1884
    Guardian-of-jesus
    Habakkuk
    Haggai
    Hagner 1984
    Harnack-1884
    Harris 1887
    Harris 1984
    Hearon 2004
    Hearon 2010
    Hebrews
    Heilmann 2018
    Henderson1992
    Henderson-1992
    Henderson 1995
    Hezser 2010
    History
    Hoffman-1986
    Holy Cross Day
    Holy-innocents
    Holy-saturday
    Horsley 2010
    Hosea
    Hutchens2013
    Hymes-1994
    Ignatius Of Antioch
    Infertility
    Isaiah
    Jaffee-1999
    James
    James Of Jerusalem
    James The Elder
    Jefford 1989
    Jefford 1995
    Jeffreys-1986
    Jeremiah
    Jerome
    Job
    Joel
    John
    Jonah
    Jones & Mirecki 1995
    Joseph
    Joshua
    Jude
    Judges
    Jungmann-1959
    Justin Martyr
    Kelber-1987
    Kelber-1995
    Kelber 2002
    Kelber 2010
    Kelber & Sanders 2010
    Kevil
    Kings
    Kleinig-2013
    Kloppenborg 1979
    Kloppenborg 1995
    Koch2010
    Kok 2015
    Kolb2000
    Kolb-2000
    Kolbarand2008
    Kolb-arand-2008
    Kurekchomycz2009
    Lake 1905
    Lamentations
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-a
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-b
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-c
    LaVerdiere 1996
    Layton 1968
    Lectionary
    Lent-1
    Lent-1-a
    Lent-1b
    Lent-1c
    Lent-2
    Lent-2-a
    Lent-2b
    Lent-2c
    Lent-3
    Lent-3-a
    Lent-3b
    Lent-3c
    Lent-4
    Lent-4-a
    Lent-4b
    Lent-4c
    Lent-5
    Lent-5-a
    Lent-5b
    Lent-5c
    Lessing2014
    Lessing-2014
    Leviticus
    Lincoln-1885
    Lindemann 1997
    Literary Character
    Liturgy
    Livesey 2012
    Long-2009
    Lord-1986
    Lord-1987
    Lord's Prayer
    Luke
    Luther
    Maas-2014
    Maccoull-1999
    Maier 1984
    Malachi
    Manuscripts
    Mark
    Marty-2016
    Martyrdom Of John The Baptist
    Martyrs
    Mary Magdalene
    Mary Mother Of Our Lord
    Mason-1998
    Massaux 1993 (1950)
    Matthew
    Matthias
    Mazza 1995
    Mazza-1996
    Mazza 1999
    Mbamalu 2014
    McDonald 1980
    McDonnell & Montague 1991
    McKean 2003
    Mcknight-2014
    Micah
    Middleton 1935
    Milavec 1995
    Milavec-2003
    Milavec2012
    Miller 2019
    Missional
    Mitch-2010
    Mitchell 1995
    Molina-evers-1998
    Monday-in-holy-week
    Montenyohl-1993
    Morris-1992
    Motyer-1993
    Mueller-2006
    Muilenburg 1929
    Music
    Nahum
    Nehemiah
    Neufeld-1999
    Newsletter
    Newtestament
    New Testament
    Niditch-1995
    Niditch 2003
    Niebuhr 1956
    Niederwimmer-1982
    Niederwimmer 1995
    Niederwimmer-1996
    Numbers
    Obadiah
    Oldtestament
    Old Testament
    Olsen-1986
    Ong-1987
    Ong-1988
    Ong-1995
    Oralit
    Orality
    Ordination
    Orphan-hosting
    Osborne-2002
    Osborne-2013
    Ozment1980
    Ozment-1980
    Palm-sunday
    Palm-sunday-a
    Palm-sunday-c
    Pardee 1995
    Parks-1986
    Passionb
    Patterson 1995
    Pearce-1993
    Pentateuch
    Pentecost-10a
    Pentecost-10b
    Pentecost-10c
    Pentecost-11a
    Pentecost-11b
    Pentecost-11c
    Pentecost-12a
    Pentecost-12b
    Pentecost-12c
    Pentecost-13a
    Pentecost-13b
    Pentecost13c
    Pentecost-13c
    Pentecost-14a
    Pentecost-14b
    Pentecost-14c
    Pentecost-15
    Pentecost-15a
    Pentecost-15b
    Pentecost-15c
    Pentecost-16
    Pentecost-16a
    Pentecost-16b
    Pentecost-16c
    Pentecost-17a
    Pentecost-17b
    Pentecost 17C
    Pentecost-18a
    Pentecost-18b
    Pentecost 18 C
    Pentecost-19a
    Pentecost-19b
    Pentecost 19 C
    Pentecost-1a
    Pentecost-20a
    Pentecost-20b
    Pentecost 20 C
    Pentecost-21a
    Pentecost-21b
    Pentecost 21 C
    Pentecost-22a
    Pentecost-22b
    Pentecost 22 C
    Pentecost-23a
    Pentecost-23b
    Pentecost 23 C
    Pentecost-24a
    Pentecost-24b
    Pentecost-24-c
    Pentecost-25b
    Pentecost-25-c
    Pentecost-26b
    Pentecost-26-c
    Pentecost-2a
    Pentecost-2b
    Pentecost-2c
    Pentecost-3a
    Pentecost-3b
    Pentecost-3c
    Pentecost-4a
    Pentecost-4b
    Pentecost-4c
    Pentecost-5a
    Pentecost-5b
    Pentecost-5c
    Pentecost-6a
    Pentecost-6b
    Pentecost-6c
    Pentecost-7a
    Pentecost-7b
    Pentecost-7c
    Pentecost-8a
    Pentecost-8b
    Pentecost-8c
    Pentecost-9a
    Pentecost-9b
    Pentecost-9c
    Pentecost-b
    Pentecost-c
    Pentecost Eve
    Pentecost Monday
    Pentecost Sunday
    Pentecost Tuesday
    Petersen 1994
    Peterson2010
    Peterson-2010
    Philemon
    Philippians
    Philosophy
    Picirilli 1988
    Pick 1908
    Pieper1924
    Pieper 1924
    Pieper 1968
    Piper 1947
    Powell 2000
    Prayer
    Preaching
    Presentation Of Our Lord
    Proctor 2019
    Proper-19c
    Proper-20c
    Proper 21C
    Proper 22C
    Proper 23C
    Proper 24C
    Proper 25C
    Proper 26C
    Proper 27C
    Proper 28C
    Prophets
    Proverbs
    Psalm
    Psalms
    Quinquagesima
    Quintilian
    Rabbinic Character
    Real Presence
    Receptivity
    Reed 1995
    Reformation
    Reformation Day
    Reinhartz 2018
    Resurrection
    Revelation
    Rhetoric
    Rhoads 2010
    Richardson & Gooch 1984
    Riggs 1995
    Ritual Meal
    Romans
    Rordorf 1996
    Rosenberg 1986
    Rosenberg 1987
    Rosenfeld-levene-2012
    Rueger-2016
    Russo 1994
    Ruth
    Sacrament
    Sacrifice
    Saenger 1999
    Sailhamer1992
    Sailhamer-1992
    Sale 1996
    Samuel
    Scaer2004
    Scaer-2004
    Schaff 1886
    Schaff 1888
    Schaff 1889
    Schaff 2014
    Schaff-2014
    Schollgen
    Schwarz 2005
    Scriptural Usage
    Seeliger 1996
    Septuagesima
    Sermon
    Sexagesima
    Simon And Jude
    Smith-2009
    Smith 2018
    Sommerville-2006
    Songofsongs
    St. Andrew
    Stark 1997
    St. Barnabas
    St. Bartholomew
    St. John
    St. John The Baptist
    St Luke
    St Mark
    St Matthew
    St. Matthias
    St Michael And All Angels
    St. Paul
    St. Peter And Paul
    St Philip And St James
    Strawbridge 2017
    St. Stephen
    St. Thomas
    St. Titus
    Sunday Of The Passion
    Tatian
    Taylor 1888
    TDNT
    Teaching
    Telfer 1939
    Tertullian
    Textual Comparison
    Textual Integrity
    Theophilos 2018
    Theophilus Of Antioch
    Thielman-2010
    Thursday In Holy Week
    Timothy
    Titus
    Transfiguration
    Transfiguration-a
    Transfigurationb
    Transfiguration-c
    Trinity 1
    Trinity 10
    Trinity 11
    Trinity 12
    Trinity 13
    Trinity 14
    Trinity 15
    Trinity 16
    Trinity 17
    Trinity 18
    Trinity 19
    Trinity 2
    Trinity 20
    Trinity 21
    Trinity 22
    Trinity 23
    Trinity 3
    Trinity 4
    Trinity 5
    Trinity 6
    Trinity 7
    Trinity 8
    Trinity 9
    Trinity-a
    Trinity-b
    Trinity-c
    Trinity Sunday
    Tsang 2009
    Tuckett
    Tuesday In Holy Week
    Tuilier 1995
    Twelftree 1984
    Two Ways
    Ty 19
    Van Der Merwe 2017
    Van Der Merwe 2019
    Van Der Watt 2008
    Van De Sandt 2002
    Van De Sandt 2007
    Van-de-sandt-2010
    Van-de-sandt-2011
    Van De Sandt & Flusser 2002
    Van Deventer 2021
    Varner 2005
    Veith1993
    Veith-1993
    Veith-sutton-2017
    Vikis-Freibergs 1997
    Visitation
    Voobus 1968
    Voobus 1969
    Warfield 1886
    Wasson & Toelken 1998
    Wednesday In Holy Week
    Wenham 1984
    Wenham 1992
    Weston-2009
    Wilson2011
    Wilson-2011
    Wilson20113470b5cf10
    Wolmarans 2005
    Wright 1984
    Young 2011
    Ysebaert-2002
    Zechariah
    Zephaniah

Proudly powered by Weebly