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Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Nine: Judges." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. pp. 163-178. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House.
The book of Judges derives its title from the Latin translation of the Hebrew, used frequently in the book for those exercising leadership and for the action of leading the nation's affairs. Lessing and Steinmann note the word group more often refers to military leadership than to the action we might immediately assume of a judge in a court of law (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 163).
The book is formally anonymous, but historically it has been commonly ascribed to Samuel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 164). However, as with Joshua, there are a number of notes ending with "until this day," thus suggesting the composition was not finalized until some time later. Mention of the Jebusites in Jerusalem (1:21) indicates a time prior to 1002 BC, when David took Jerusalem. There is a reference in 18:20 to an exile, which Lessing and Steinmann identify as the Assyrian exile in 734-732 BC. These references leave the date and author uncertain.
Lessing and Steinmann observe that several of the judges were contemporaries of each other, in different parts of Israel. They provide a helpful chronology (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, pp. 164-165). Several of the sites described in Judges have been identified and dated by archaeologists.
Critical scholarship has largely been influenced by Noth, who argued for a number of revisions and expansions after the Babylonian exile (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 165). Lessing and Steinmann consider such literary dissection to be "fraught with subjectivity" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 165). and that a better path is to consider the book to be essentially coherent and unified. They describe a good deal of symmetry, with several portions near the beginning being mirrored by portions near the end (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 166). The prominent roles of several women in Judges have made the book attractive to various feminist scholars.
Lessing and Steinmann observe that textual traditions of Judges reflect the presence of two different Greek versions, probably dependent on different Hebrew versions (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 166). The version in Codex Alexandrinus is not as close to the Masoretic text as is Codex Vaticanus.
Judges naturally divides into three parts. It consists of a summary of the conditions in Canaan (1:1-36). Second, there are a number of instances of Israel's lament at enemy occupation followed by God's deliverance (2:1-16:31). Lessing and Steinmann note that there are six "major judges" and six "minor judges" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 167). They see the number six as significant, representing a shortfall of perfection, normally indicated by the number seven. Additionally, each judge is worse than the previous one. The third portion of the book (17:1-21:25) depicts the nation falling into both religious and social chaos.
Lessing and Steinmann discuss significant historical issues found in Judges, beginning with the fertility cult of the Canaanites (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 168). As Israel failed to drive the Canaanites out, the local religions crept into Israelite life, enticing the Israelites to sin. The Canaanite religions involved Baal and Asherah, members of a pantheon, which Lessing and Steinmann describe briefly (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 169). Asherah is the mother god, while Baal, one of her sons, is the storm god. Baal, counter to the god of the sea, brings life-giving rain to the land. During the dry season, when Baal is held captive by the god of the underworld, Asherah fights for and gains his release. Rain returns and brings fertility. The life-giving work of Baal and Asherah is depicted as sexual intercourse, hence the custom of ritual prostitution, which was subsequently engaged in by Israelites as well as Canaanites (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 169).
A second important historical issue in Judges is the presence of the Sea Peoples, also known as the Philistines (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 169). These people had moved into Palestine around 1180 BC, from Grecian territories (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 170). They established the cities of Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron. Israel was unprepared to meet this iron-age society without some form of centralized government.
Lessing and Steinmann observe the Holy Spirit's activity in the different judges. However, the note that the judges were not successful in the fight against Israel's idolatry. They provide a brief survey of the different judges (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, pp. 170ff). Throughout the survey, they demonstrate the decline of Israel. The character of the judges becomes progressively worse, and in the end, Samson only begins to rescue Israel, a job which David later takes up again.
Christ is seen in Judges as in 2:1 Yahweh's Messenger warns Israel's leaders, as he appears to Gideon in 6:12, and to Samson's parents in chapter 13 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 176). Lessing and Steinmann see these incidents as pre-incarnation appearances of Christ to his people. Throughout Judges it becomes clear that Israel needs a king. This king, in the New Testament, is Jesus.
Lessing and Steinmann see sin and grace depicted in Kings as the nation spirals toward civil war (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 177). The condition of sin and its results become clear. Yet when the people call out to God for help he always shows mercy. He does not break his covenant with Israel, though Israel is unfaithful.