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Malachi - God's Offer We Shouldn't Refuse

10/1/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
10/1/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-Nine: Malachi." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (551-559).

    Malachi centers on God's covenant offered to people, but which must be embraced by those people. In the end, the community will split apart as God brings judgment on those who reject him (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 551). Lessing and Steinmann observe that there is no information about Malachi or his setting in the book. However, the problems mentioned in the book suggest the fifth century B.C.
    The name "Malachi" means "my messenger." Lessing and Steinmann note that those who consider its use in 1:1 as a title rather than as a name speculate that most of the material was taken over into Zechariah but that this portion was left separate so as to reach the important symbolic number twelve (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 551). Yet the book shows significant unity and cohesion as a literary unit. Lessing and Steinmann therefore take Malachi to be the name of the author (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 552).
    Malachi is identified as an "oracle," as are Nahum and Habakkuk. The oracles of God's intervention are full of rhetorical questions, no less than twenty-two within Malachi's fifty-five verses (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 552). The pattern Malachi uses is to provide a thesis confronting a wrong belief or action, providing a rationale (antithesis) of the people, and then providing a defense for the thesis, demonstrating the accusation is correct. Most scholars find a total of six different cycles of argument (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 552).
    Malachi 1:8 uses a Persian term for the governor, though the setting indicates that Judah has returned from Babylon. This suggests a historical setting in the middle of the fifth century 
B.C. (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 554). Thematically, there are significant similarities to Nehemiah, suggesting a date of 450-430 B.C.
    Election is a significant theological theme in Malachi. God has loved Jacob and hated Esau. Lessing and Steinmann consider the "hate" not to indicate a particular animus but rather a lack of relationship (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 554). God's plan is to defend his people who are faithful to him. In Malachi, Edom is the enemy of his people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 555). The covenant with the patriarchs is still in effect. The people of God are his "treasured possession" (Malachi 3:17).
    A second important theological concept in Malachi is the home (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 556). The household is the source of stability and living a life with a future. Lessing and Steinmann note that archaeologists have identified housing complexes where a few families, related in some way, would live together. This placed the extended family as a crucial societal unit.
    Christ is seen in Malachi as the one who, in 1:11, is the name to be honored. In the NewTestament Jesus is depicted as the possession of all and the name to be exalted (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 557). To stand in awe of Yahweh is to stand in his grace. To do otherwise is to remain in sin (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 557). The sins of people will be judged, but those who hold to God's grace will be spared judgment (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 558).

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Zechariah - God's Justice Calling for Restoration

9/24/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
9/24/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-Eight: Zechariah." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (541-550).

    Lessing and Steinmann comment on both the length and the obscurity of the oracles in Zechariah. These factors have moved scholars to widely varied "theories concerning its date, authorship, unity, and meaning" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 541). Zechariah can be plainly identified as a prophet who returned to Jerusalem in 533 B.C., along with the high priest Joshua. With the temple not yet reconstructed, motivating the people for the project was a critical task. Zechariah 2:11 and 8:22 indicate the temple must be finished for Yahweh to bring his reign to all nations from Zion.
    Authorship of Zechariah has long been questioned. Matthew's Gospel conflates Zechariah 11:12 and Jeremiah 32:6-9, and in Matthew 27:9-10 both are attributed to Zechariah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 541). On a more modern front, scholars have noted striking differences between chapters 1-8, 9-11, and 12-14, which leads some to ascribe the writings to different authors (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 542). Others have noted signs of unity throughout the book, including a chiastic structure in both 1-8 and 9-14.
    Zechariah's visions are aligned with priestly values. Numerous concepts such as the altar, priesthood, menorah, and holiness are treated in various literary manners (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 542).  Lessing and Steinmann consider whether Zechariah contains apocalyptic features. The difficulty in this matter is the definition of apocalypse (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 542). After providing an extensive outline of the book, Lessing and Steinmann discuss the chiastic structure of chapters 1-8. The structure is relatively clear (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 544).
    Zechariah provides three dates, in 1:1, 1:7, and 7:1, placing the prophecies in the period of 520-518 B.C. (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 544). At the time, Darius is the ruler of Persia. The temple construction had been approved by Cyrus, reigning 559-530. However, the project had not been completed. Persia had endured a period of turmoil due to the unexpected death of Cyrus' son in 522. The reconstructed temple was less impressive than the original model, constructed under Solomon, indicating that the construction project was neglected in some ways.
    The material in chapters 9-14 tends toward apocalypse and eschatology. The names of people from chapters 1-8 are no longer present in 9-14. Chronological markers are also much more vague (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 545). Some scholars maintain that these chapters are closely related to the conflicts of the time between Persia and Greece, while others see them looking forward to Alexander the Great's conquest in the later part of the fourth century. Lessing and Steinmann consider the attempt to identify people in Zechariah 9-14 as a futile effort. They prefer analysis based on theological themes.
    Divine justice is a primary theme in Zechariah. Unlike many concepts of justice, the call to justice in Zechariah requires protection of those who can't protect themselves. "Zechariah rejects a type of dualism where spiritual issues are divorced from political and social concerns" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 546). The spiritual person cares about society.
    God's holiness is a second important theological issue in Zechariah. The divine glory nas moved from a hiding place in the Holy of Holies and now all of Jerusalem is surrounded by God's glory (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 546). In the end, everything is declared holy to God, with the exception of those who turn against Yahweh's holiness.
    Christ is seen in Zechariah 1 as the messenger of Yahweh, riding a red horse. He prays for Israel, much as, on the cross, Jesus prays for the Romans who are executing him (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 547). The images of Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12-15 present Yahweh's Branch in terms similar to the depiction ofJesus in Hebrews. Zechariah 9-14 contains material cited at the passion of Christ.
    Zechariah portrays God expressing wrath over the sinful actions of the nations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 548). God's plan is to execute judgment against them. Yet his grace is also seen in the vision of a man measuring Jerusalem, demonstrating the room for all to receive God's protection. 

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Haggai - an individual in the shadows

9/17/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
9/17/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-Seven: Haggai." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (533-540).

    Unlike most of the prophets Lessing and Steinmann observe that Haggai says nothing about his ancestry. He rather introduces himself merely as a prophet (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 533). His focus is on the fact that God has begun to speak after a lengthy silence. At the end of Persian dominance, it is time to rebuild the temple.
    The narrative in Haggai is in the third person. This has prompted some to assume it was written by the prophet's followers. However, third person narratives are not uncommon in the literature.
    Lessing and Steinmann observe that Haggai has a high density of chronological markers, recording oracles received during a period of four months (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 534). The language is prose, but with some poetic qualities.
    From a historical viewpoint, the apparent end of Israel predicted in Jeremiah and Ezekiel is not the actual end of the story. Judah has been promised a rebirth which would last forever. The event which we often consider a "return" from captivity is not actually a return (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 535). Most from Judah had been left in Judah rather than being deported. Most who were deported to Babylon had died in Babylon. The return was that of descendants of a minority group who had been deported. This move of immigration was spurred on by unrest in Persia under Darius. There was some comfort and wealth in Jerusalem, but the conditions in Judaea were largely poor and plagued by crop failures and hunger.
    Haggai was closely related with the move to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. Lessing and Steinmann draw in some details from Ezra and from Kings and Chronicles which shed light on the rebuilding activity (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 536).
    Haggai presents God as the powerful God who acts as a warrior for His people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 536). Despite the riches, power, and attractiveness of the Persian kingdom, the nation would fall, along with many other strong nations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 537).
    Christ may be seen in Haggai as the one who arises like the rebuilt temple as a place for worship. There is extensive language about one desired, a servant, and a seal for Judaea (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 538). The troubles of Judah are portrayed as a direct result of their sin, while the grace of God is tied to Judah's repentance.

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Zephaniah - Hope after Destruction

9/10/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
9/10/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-Six: Zephaniah." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (525-532).

    Zephaniah the prophet was born under the rule of Manasseh, between 697 and 643 B.C., at a time when faithfulness to Yahweh was often persecuted. His name means "God protects" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 525). The genealogy Zephaniah provides is extensive, giving four generations, and ties him to Hezekiah, the good king of Judea.
    Because of a change in theme from Zephaniah 1:2-3:7 to 3:8-20, form critics may assign the latter portion to a post-exilic author (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 525). However, others do not consider a shift in philosophical topic and its attendant vocabulary to be a definitive indicator of the presence of a different author.
    Lessing and Steinmann see Zephaniah as an excellent example of Hebrew poetry using standard features of prophecy (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 526). The outline shows significant nuance, including subtle shifts in expression.
    Zephaniah represents a resurgence of prophetic works toward the end of the 7th century B.C., after years of silence following Isaiah's work. Lessing and Steinmann consider the harsh reigns of Manasseh and Amon responsible for a silencing of prophets (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 527). This time period also saw the murder of Sennacherib of Assyria and an expansion of Assyrian power throughout the region. In 623, under the reign of Josiah, the Scripture was rediscovered, leading to an extensive restoration of faithful practice in Judah. Zephaniah was the prophet to address the situation in the time of Josiah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 528).
    The coming day of the Lord, full of destruction, serves as a primary theological theme in Zephaniah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 528). God will sweep everything away in a day of doom. The image of destruction may be compared to the flood at the time of Noah, in which God judged and cleansed the world, yet did not destroy it, but rather established his covenant with all the earth (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 529).
    A second important theological theme in Zephaniah is idolatry (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 529). Lessing and Steinmann briefly explore the attractiveness of the cults of Baal and Asherah. As deities of rain and fertility, they were especially attractive in an area such as Judah, where the moisture is from rain rather than rivers (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 530). Other Assyrian deities had also risen to prominence under the nation's cultural domination of Judah.
    The promises of restoration in Zephaniah point to the restoration found in Christ. Not only does God finish bringing calamity on the people, but he reconciles them to him and removes his wrath (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 531). This reversal of fortunes by God's initiative can easily be seen as pointing us to Jesus' work. The sin of Judah and her enemies have been great. But God's day of salvation is an even greater grace.

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Habakkuk - God's Power in Times of Suffering

9/3/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
9/3/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-Five: Habakkuk." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (517-524).

    Lessing and Steinmann observe that Habakkuk's message is relatively plain, thus showing how the power of God works in His people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 517). There are suggestions within the book that Habakkuk was involved with livestock as well as being in some role in the temple. They date the oracles between 612 and 587 B.C.
    Critical scholarship observes that the psalm found in Habakkuk chapter three is not present in a commentary from Qumran, though the entire work is present in the Septuagint (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 517). Though some commentators suggest the first two chapters have different authorship than the third, the themes are consistent and both parts have superscriptions identifying Habakkuk as the author.
    The work is internally identified as an "oracle," and, like other such works, considers what Yahweh has done in the past, projecting conclusions about his future actions (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 518). Chapter three diverges from the oracle to being entitled as a prayer, and is musical in form. Lessing and Steinmann observe that textual issues have been identified in chapter three, where the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint tend to have differences (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 519). 
    The historical issue surrounding the identification of "the wicked" is a challenge in Habakkuk (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 519). The term refers in 1:4 to unbelievers in Judah, but in 1:13 to the Babylonians. This points to a date between 609 and 587, when both could be identified at the same time. The Chaldeans are being raised up as a unified people, previously separated into the Medes and the Chaldeans, once they overthrew Assyria in 612 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 520).
    The suffering of the righteous is a prominent theological theme in Habakkuk (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 520). Despite the calls of the righteous for divine help, it was not materializing. God's solution, bringing an unbelieving nation to destroy Judah, was not what the righteous would hope for. the unrighteous seem to prevail (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 521). In the end, the Babylonians will fall themselves. Yahweh is more willing to tolerate sin than we might expect. Yet, the love of God is still working in his people. The hymn of chapter three expresses the confidence which Habakkuk has found at last.
    The life of faith is a second prominent theme in Habakkuk (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 521). God's people are to trust in Torah and to live by faith. God has an appointed time to bring evil to an end (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 522). 
    Christ may be seen in Habakkuk as he, like the prophet, laments before the Father. Lessing and Steinmann particularly note this in John 11 and in the cries dereliction on the cross (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 522). Sin and grace appear as violence and sin are decried, but will be addressed by God's work of judgment which will come upon the wicked of Judah, then of Babylon, leaving a righteous remnant (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 523). God redeems and restores His people.

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Nahum - This Time Nineveh Falls

8/27/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
8/27/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-Four: Nahum." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (507-516).

    Nahum the prophet is a shadowy character. Lessing and Steinmann note the only detail given in the book is his home village of Elkosh, a town which is hard to pinpoint (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 507). His prophecy, directed against Nineveh, comes at a time when they will not respond as they did at the time of Jonah. Lessing and Steinmann date the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C.
    Considerations of authorship have often centered around the "semi-acrostic poem in Nah 1:3-7" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 507). Attempts have been made to complete the poem or extend it into the next chapter. While some scholarship has attempted to push the work to a period after the exile, others have begun to find integrity in the work and to date it shortly after the middle of the 7th century B.C.
    Nahum is characterized by vivid images and poetic beauty but at the same time by a stern message. The fall of Nineveh is to be a terrible thing (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 508). The book does divide fairly neatly into its three chapters. In the first, God is the divine warrior. In chapter two, he brings battle against Nineveh. In chapter three the fate of Nineveh is revealed. From a textual standpoint the various Qumran fragments and the Septuagint witness to the Masoretic Text being accurate. However, versification does differ slightly (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 509).
    Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, is portrayed in artwork "as a ravenous lion" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 509). Nahum uses these themes in his description of Assyria, particularly in 2:12. By the later part of the 8th century B.C., the Assyrian lion brought Samaria and the northern kingdom of Israel to destruction. Nahum depicts Nineveh in a very negative manner (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 510). Lessing and Steinmann observe the same characteristics are found in other accounts of the Assyrians. Nahum does mention the fall of Thebes as having already occurred, thus dating his writing after 663. Nineveh has not yet fallen, so the work was composed before 612. Lessing and Steinmann discuss the defenses of Nineveh in some detail (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 511).
    Divine vengeance serves as a primary theological emphasis in Nahum (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 511). God the warrior comes to defeat the enemies. Lessing and Steinmann note that we often characterize vengeance as a senseless activity. However, in the case of God's vengeance, it is measured activity in accord with known divine law. Both God's wrath and mercy are carried out in accord with his word (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 512).
    The gospel of peace serves as an important theological issue. Nahum 1:15 speaks of the coming of the gospel. God's beneficent reign is coming (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 512). The fall of Nineveh ushers in God's justice.
    Christ is seen in Nahum as we realize that God is the strong protector (1:7-8). The warrior God fights for his people who trust him (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 513). Sin and grace are seen as God's judgment against Nineveh results in his grace and peace being available to Israel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 514).

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Micah - God as the Hero

8/20/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
8/20/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-Three: Micah." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (497-506).

    Micah was a prophet of the eighth century B.C., along with Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah. Lessing and Steinmann consider that he is undervalued due to the skill of the other three (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 497). Micah's emphasis on the unique nature of God leads to his making some of the best known statements of any prophet. His point of view, as someone from the small village of Moresheth-Gath, helps him see the false prophets of Jerusalem in a clear light.
    Form critics, assuming that Micah's statement about restoration came from after the Babylonian exile, have divided the work into smaller portions, taking the parts speaking of judgment as original to Micah, and other portions to come from a later author (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 497). The similarity of the views of restoration in Micah and Isaiah have suggested a level of redaction by the same editors (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 498). Other scholars, who allow for predictive prophecy, take the entire work to be written by Micah.
    Among literary features of Micah, Lessing and Stenmann consider the extensive use of parataxis to be important. Parataxis "describes a writing that places materials next to each other without giving readers transitional assistance" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 498). This makes Micah difficult to outline. However, in general, the work is structured around cycles of expressing God's judgment followed by redemption.
    The superscription of Micah places his ministry "during the reigns of Jotham (751-736), Ahaz (732-716), and Hezekiah (716-687)" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 499). During this time period Lessing and Steinamnn observe that the Assyrians were making aggressive efforts to hold western Syria as well as Palestine (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 500). This activity provoked refugees to come to Jerusalem. The economic challenges of the shift in population hit the region hard. Assyria suffered from the loss of their king, Sargon II, in 705 B.C., followed by revolts. Sennacherib, the new Assyrian king, attempted to consolidate his power using heavy-handed tactics (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 501).
    The salvation of a remnant people of Israel serves as a primary theological theme in Micah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 502). These people are not free from trials, but rather remain faithful to God during their trials. They then receive a place to live in peace under the rule of a new Davidic king.
    A second prominent theological theme in Micah is God's sovereignty over disaster. His judgment comes on people for his own reasons and in his own time. Rather than seeing the world in the pagan model of strife among competing deities, Micah sees one God who alone accomplishes his will (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 502).
    Micah's vision of a new David coming from Bethlehem serves as a picture of Christ (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 503). He is the good shepherd who is both tough and gentle. This reminds Lessing and Steinmann of the divine and human natures of Christ (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 503). The promise of peace in Micah foreshadows Jesus as the giver of peace, particularly in John 14:27 and 20:19, 21, 26 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 503). Jesus is further the Light of the world, the appellation given to God in Micah 7:8.
    Sin and grace are seen in Micah as God brings punishment for sin and restoration to Israel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 503). 

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Jonah - Irony All Around

8/13/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
8/13/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-Two: Jonah." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (487-496).

    Jonah is arguably one of the best known characters in the Bible, with broad cultural familiarity even among people who are not very familiar with the Bible. Lessing and Steinmann note that the events in Jonah are easily dated in the middle of the 8th century B.C. (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 487). However, the date of composition may be later, as late as the third century B.C., when it is cited in other works. The earliest possible limit would be in the first half of the 8th century, if the author is the prophet mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25. Some would place the composition in the post-exilic period, when there may have been a tendency toward universalism and against xenophobia. However, Lessing and Steinmann find no strong evidence for such a movement (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 488). Linguistic evidence based on use of Aramaic terms is inconclusive, as both languages were broadly used even in the earlier period.
    The genre of Jonah is unclear, as the work can be viewed as fitting into numerous categories. Lessing and Steinmann do note that Jonah is quite different from other prophetic books (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 488). The opening is very like a factual, historical account (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 489). The use of irony suggests a satire of some sort. Chief among the ironies is Jonah's repeated pattern of being the only character to fail to act like a faithful Israelite. He simply doesn't fit into our conception of a prophet.
    Lessing and Steinmann find the structure of Jonah to be straightforward. In the first two chapters we have Jonah at sea, and in the last two chapters he is at Nineveh (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 490). The narrative repeatedly refers to evil, which is gradually taken away, except for the evil which is upon Jonah. Yahweh appears unsuccessful at saving Jonah from his evil.
    Skeptics focus on Jonah as "just another fish story" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 491). There are historical issues which are not dealt with effectively. For instance, the Assyrian king is not named. Assyrian annals have no record of the work of Jonah. However, Assyria was in a period of turmoil during this period. It was a time of volatility in which there may have been sudden positive responses to a prophetic call to repentance. Lessing and Steinmann observe that both Jesus and the Pharisees are recorded as taking Jonah as a clear account of historical events (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 492).
    While Jonah is a brief work and easily approached, Lessing and Steinmann observe it is theologically rich, with a history of inclusion in liturgical calendars (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 493). A challenging issue is the idea of divine repentance. In 3:9 there is the hope that God will change his plan. In 3:10, that is exactly what God does. Lessing and Steinmann see this as evidence of the primacy of "grace, mercy, patience, and covenant-loyalty (Jonnah 4:2)" in God's character (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 493). They observe a number of other instances in the Old Testament where he moves from judgment to grace. In five passages, the Old Testament says clearly that God does not change his mind. Lessing and Steinmann suggest this may be related to a distinction between conditional and unconditional promises (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 493).
    The force of God's word serves as a second important theological theme in Jonah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 494). God's words are the mover behind all the events. On the contrary, in 4:2 Jonah suggests it would have been better for God to heed Jonah's word.
    Three times the Gospels use the "sign of Jonah" to describe Christ's death, burial, and resurrection. This sign includes "both judgment and salvation" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 494). The issue of sin and grace is prominent in Jonah, as God's grace is applied to all who repent of sin (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 495). God is seen as the one who rejects sin and provides salvation.

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Obadiah - International Tension and Divine Judgment

8/6/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
8/6/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty-One: Obadiah." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (481-486).

    Obadiah, even as a very brief work, effectively reflects strained relations between the Israelites and the Edomites (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 481). These tensions had existed for a very long time, with foreshadowing in Genesis 25 and 27. Lessing and Steinmann catalog a number of instances of conflict between the two nations. The tension is not at all surprising at the time of Obadiah.
    Lessing and Steinmann note a tendency among scholars to divide the book between verses 14 and 15. In verse 15, the oracle against Edom expands to all nations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 482). However, Lessing and Stainmann find no reason that would militate against the work having just one author. As to the identity of the author, there are numerous figures named Obadiah in the Old Testament. Though we cannot pinpoint the author, it is certainly reasonable to assume this work was written by a prophet named Obadiah.
    As regards literary features, Obadiah is an oracle primarily against Edom. Oracles against foreign nations are common to every prophetic book. This one calls Esau by name seven times (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 482). This recalls the strife between Jacob and Esau, the root of future tension between Israel and Edom.
    Lessing and Steinmann observe that the superscription of Obadiah is quite short, with no information other than the prophet's name and the fact the work tells of a vision (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 483). Because of the lack of detail, scholars date Obadiah from 850-450. There may be a close relationship to Jeremiah 49:7-22. Lessing and Steinmann cite Raabe as considering Obadiah to have been the person who modified the oracle of Jeremiah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 483). This would place the writing of Obadiah between 587 and 553 B.C.
    The theme of divine retribution is prominent in Obadiah. The people of Edom will be overrun and destroyed by thieves, as they have acted like thieves (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 483). God's retribution goes hand in hand with his judgment, which will come on a day of the Lord, a time of judgment on the nations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 484). This will involve the drinking of a cup of God's wrath (v. 16). The coming defeat of Edom serves as a symbol of all rebellion against God. Edom's defeat may effectively signal Christ's defeat of sin and death. The restoration pictured in verse 21 suggests the final restoration of Revelation 11:15, as all the world is the kingdom of Christ (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 485).
    Lessing and Steinmann see sin and grace depicted in Obadiah as the Edomites hold a false sense of security in vv. 3-4 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 485).  It is shown to be false, as God humbles the Edomites by having them judged by fire, a typical way destruction of sin is depicted in the Old Testament. When God erects his dwelling and fortress he delivers grace to the world.

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Amos, the Earliest Writing Prophet

7/30/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
7/30/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Thirty: Amos." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (469-480).

    Lessing and Steinmann consider Amos to be the earliest literary prophet, who spoke to the Northern kingdom in the early 8th century B.C. (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 469). His major focus is on Yahweh, who is described 86 times in the book ,using ten different names. He is the God who is in the process of sending devastation upon Israel.
    While Lessing and Steinmann observe that there is broad scholarly consensus on the authenticity of much of Amos, there have been questions about a number of portions by those who consider the work to have been through a number of cycles of redaction. Lessing and Steinmann summarize some of the points of view which could lead to the various redaction theories. In summary, the theories all call the "integrity of the biblical text and its theological message" into question (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 470).
    Amos uses a number of characteristic rhetorical devices. There is repetition of phrases, and particularly groups of five elements are common (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 4370). He further engages in rhetorical questions, sound plays, and a riddle (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 471). The motif of an earthquake and Yahweh's judgment shaking things is prominent. God's judgment, typically poured out in oracles against other nations, is applied to Israel in Amos. In the case of oracles of judgment, Amos brings seven, with the seventh being against Israel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 472).
    Lessing and Steinmann note that the Aramean kingdom commonly showed aggression toward Israel prior to about 800 B.C. (2 Kings 13:7; 10:32-33) (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 473). During the first half of the 8th century B.C. there was an alliance with Israel, reducing the level of tension. During that period, Israel expanded its economic and political power, eventually rivaling that held under David and Solomon (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 474). Amos best fits in the period just prior to 753 B.C., before the expansion of Assyrian power. The earthquake referred to in Amos 1:1 may well be the same one described in Zechariah 14:5, which archaeologists date to about 760 B.C.
    Amos has received significant scholarly attention as the first of the writing prophets (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 475). His theological emphasis looks back significantly to Mosaic themes. Lessing and Steinmann particularly note his emphasis on ethical justice and righteousness, strong themes of the Pentateuch. Powerful people were oppressing those who were less powerful. Amos is the first prophet chronologically to refer to "the Day of Yahweh" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 476). In Amos, this was a day of judgment rather than of blessing. Amos provides three hymns of creation (4:13; 5:8-9; 9:5-6) (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 477). Human life is inextricably bound to God's created order. The violations of natural law engaged in by surrounding nations are seen as the impetus to divine judgment. Because the natural law can be recognized by all people, all are found guilty before God.
    Christ may be seen in Amos in connection to the earthquake, a foreshadowing of those which occurred on Good Friday and on Easter (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 478). Jesus is the "new David" (Rom. 1:3-4) bringing in the new age of Amos 9:11-15. The roar of the lion in Amos 3:8 may be understood as foreshadowing Jesus, "the Lion of the tribe of Judah" (Rev. 5:5). The sin of the people precedes the announcement of grace in Amos 9:11-15. God does ultimately pour out His grace on his people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 479).

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Joel - An Almost Anonymous Prophet

7/23/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
7/23/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty-Nine: Joel." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (461-468).

    Lessing and Steinmann note that the name of Joel is associated with numerous Old Testament figures. However, the book of Joel provides no historical context, thus leaving considerable uncertainty as to the authorship, overall theological context, and interpretation of the message (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 461). They do, however, find a consistent literary picture of God's response to national calamity. At the outset, the people are called to repent. Then God's response is a promise of restoration.
    The composition is full of metaphors and similes, which, depending on the date of composition, may have drawn from work of other prophets or been drawn on by others (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 462). In this relatively short work, Lessing and Steinmann find 22 parallels with 12 other prophetic books.
    In the first portion of Joel, two catastrophes are described: a plague of locusts and the "Day of Yahweh" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 462). The themes are interwoven to create a call to repentance. In the second portion God cares for the plague and promises his Spirit to deal with national enemies.
    Lessing and Steinmann note the text of Joel is well preserved with the exception of 2:23, which is cryptic in nature (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 463). 
    The historical setting of Joel is difficult. The book gives no specific details other than a locust plague, which was a common event. It has been dated from the 9th to the 2nd century B.C. (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 463). The monarchy is absent, or at least not a significant help to the community. However, there is an assumption of the temple in Jerusalem. Enemies are mentioned, but they are traditional, long-term enemies.
    Lessing and Steinmann consider the possibility that Joel's plague of locusts may be a reference to a military attack (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 464). However, it may just as well refer to real locusts or other trials expected with the approach of the Day of the Lord. A second theological emphasis is Yahweh's authority over all nations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 465). While God will judge the nations, he will also give them grace by pouring out His spirit on "all flesh" (Joel 2:28). The Holy Spirit has been seen in other portions of the Old Testament. Yet in Joel it is a more universal outpouring than seen elsewhere.
    Joel's call to repentance is couched in terms of God's mercy. Lesisng and Steinmann see this as a sign of Christ, who brings God's mercy face to face with mankind (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 465). The delivery of the Holy Spirit by Jesus after the resurrection may also be seen in Joel's prophecy of the Holy Spirit.
    Though particular sins are not enumerated in Joel, Lessing and Steinmann see the plague of locusts as a judgment on sin. God's grace is seen in his promises of restoration (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 466). 

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Hosea, a Northern Prophet

7/16/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
7/16/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty-Eight: Hosea." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (451-460).

    Lessing and Steinmann place Hosea in context "shortly after the preaching of Amos (c. 765-760), who also prophesied in the Northern Kingdom. Hosea overlaps chronologically with both Micah and Isaiah who prophesied in Judah" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 451). The imagery in Hosea is striking, particularly in his marriage to an unfaithful wife as a parallel to God's relationship with Israel.
    Critical scholarship has divided the book into multiple parts, particularly separating the passages of doom (Hosea) from hopeful material (some post-exilic redactor) (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 451). However, recent approaches have been more open to descriptions of Hosea as something written in a group setting during the exilic period. Many of these would see Hosea as a literary character rather than an historical person (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 452). This view leaves scholars free to take all the characters and actions as literary inventions. However, the book contains many oral qualities, which suggests to Lessing and Steinmann that it was not a purely literary fabrication.
    Compared with the other prophets from the 8th century B.C. Hosea "is rough, disjoined, jagged, and choppy" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 453). There is doubt whether Hosea is poetry or prose. Lessing and Steinmann take it to be a mix. Hosea uses numerous similes to convey his ideas. The book basically divides into three parts. 1:1 serves as a superscription, 14:9 is a concluding exhortation, and the rest is a series of prophetic oracles (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 454). The oracles, in turn, first deal with Hosea's family life (ch. 1-3), then oracles of judgment and hope (4:1-14:8).
    Lessing and Steinmann note significant textual problems (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 454). The dialect is difficult to read. Rather than expanding on the text, as in some works, the Septuagint is very literal, making for helpful glosses of the dialectic challenges.
    Traditionally, Hosea was considered the oldest of the Twelve. However, since there are mentions of Judean kings after Uzziah, Lessing and Steinmann consider it to be chronologically later than Amos (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 455). The Assyrians had risen to prominence by the time of Hosea, but not Amos. Lessing and Steinmann consider the period covered tobe about 760-715 B.C. There was a series of six kings in the North in about 30 years. Four were assassinated by the next king. It was a very dark period for Israel.
    Lessing and Steinmann discuss important theological themes in Hosea. The family of Hosea is prominent, with his marriage to a prostitute (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 45). The issue of pagan religious prostitution needs to be factored into the equation. The marriage and children, however, cannot be separated from the relationship of Yahweh and Israel. The names of the children are certainly significant of the message. Feminists have predictably considered Hosea as misogynistic, promoting domestic abuse (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 457). What they miss, according to Lessing and Steinmann, is the fact that the negative family relationships are clearly aberrant and unacceptable.
    Christ is found in Hosea as the prophet looks to a king on David's throne, as Hosea 11:1 says God's son comes out of Egypt, and in the extensive metaphors of bride and groom (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 458). The broken and restored relationship in Hosea is very like the relationship of Christ and the church. There is also a metaphor of Christ rising on the third day, found in Hosea 6:1-3.
    Sin is highlighted in Hosea as there are many types of unfaithfulness noted (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 459). The root issue is Israel's apostasy from God. God's grace is shown in the many statements of restoration. God's people are not cast out forever.

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Minor Prophets as One Book

7/9/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
7/9/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty-Seven: The Book of the Twelve." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (447-450).

    The works often considered the "Minor Prophets" have regularly been called "The Book of the Twelve" in history (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 447). The term "minor" refers only to their length as compared to the longer prophetic books. The Twelve all together are slightly shorter than Ezekiel, the shortest of the "major" prophets. These shorter works were considered as one book by Josephus and by the Qumran community. In recent scholarship there have been attempts to consider each of the Twelve in the context of the other eleven (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 448).
    Lessing and Steinmann suggest "the day of Yahweh" as one of the important motifs in the Twelve (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 448). There are also numerous references to an earthquake, which in Amos becomes an eschatological sign of the coming of the day of Yahweh.
    Lessing and Steinmann observe that the placement of the Twelve in canonical lists differs between Jews and Christians. The Jewish canon places them at the end of the Prophets and before the Writings, while Christians place them just before the new Testament (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 449). Therefore, in the Hebrew Bible the end urges life in Judah with worship at the Temple, while the Christian Old Testament ends by affirming the coming of Elijah.

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Daniel

7/2/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
7/2/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty-Six: Daniel." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (433-446).

    Lessing and Steinmann date the move of Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon with Daniel among the captives at 604 B.C. This marks the start of the Babylonian Captivity, though Jerusalem itself didn't fall until 587 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 433). The entire situation would have planted doubt in the minds of the Jews as they were moved away from the land which was promised to them.
    While Daniel is the putative author, this work has faced significant critical attention which denies the date coinciding with the exile and the author as Daniel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 433). It has often been seen as a later, highly fictionalized, work. However, Lessing and Steinmann maintain the traditional view of authorship and date. Chapters 1-6 give accounts of events between 605 and 530 B.C. Chapters 7-12 have dates related to the reign of various kings (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 434). Because of the date of the final vision, the work would not exist in its current form before 536. Lessing and Steinmann consider it likely that the book was composed late in Daniel's life, probably when he was over eighty.
    By the third century A.D., some, including Porphyry, considered the date to be in the second century B.C. due to the prophetic visions of historical events (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 435). The theories of later composition are predicated on the impossibility of predictive prophec. Loan words from other languages are sometimes taken as evidence for a later date. However, this would not be impossible or even unlikely at the time traditionally set. Daniel's emphasis on God as the sovereign, controlling what happens, is undermined by critical interpretations, especially those which deny the validity of messianic promises (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 436). If God is truly the protector of his people, he accomplishes that protection through history. Denying the history casts doubt on his ability to care for his people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 437). If God cannot know and care for his people, the stories of his ability are misguided.
    Daniel is clearly organized into ten units, with strong transition statements for all but one shift (Daniel 5:31). (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 437). The second portion of the book overlaps in chronology with the first part. These are visions of Daniel, while the first chapters are narratives of events.
    Lessing and Steinmann note that the text of Daniel begins in Hebrew, shifts to Aramaic, then back to Hebrew, with some of the narrative portion and some of the visions in each language (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 438). They explain this by describing two chiasms, interlocked with one another. The first is introduced in chapter one, in Hebrew, then proceeds in Aramaic in chapters 2-7. The other is introduced in Aramaic in chapter 7, then proceeds in Hebrew in chapters 8-12 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 439). The overall structure in a sophisticated way draws attention to chapter seven and "its messianic vision of the Son of Man" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 439).
    In Greek manuscripts, Daniel has two different translations. The Old Greek version, probably from the second century B.C., chiefly differs from the Masoretic Text in chapters 4-6, which apparently called for some explanation (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 440). The other translation, attributed to Theodotion, is probably from the first century A.D., though Theodotion lived later, in the second century. This one is closer to the Masoretic Text. These translations include some additions as well: Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, and the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 440). Lessing and Steinmann describe the additions briefly.
    From a theological standpoint, Lessing and Steinmann find all the major themes stemming from that of the promised Messiah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 440). The book is rich in eschatological passages which describe the messiah as the central figure. Other passages also view the messiah in important terms. Particularly chapter seven speaks of the enthroned messiah, a view parallelled in Psalms 2 and 110 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 441). Though Israel is in exile, God is still seen as the protector of his people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 442). He is fully in control of human history. In contrast, the false gods of the nations are useless (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 443). Therefore, God's people need to hold to their faith with integrity. Even in times of trouble, God gives his people strength to hope and wait for the Messiah.
    Lessing and Steinmann find links to Daniel in both theOld and New Testaments. Joseph, in Genesis, has many parallels to the prophet Daniel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 443). The content of Daniel is also similar to that of Esther, as the Israelites are immersed in a pagan world (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 444). There are many similarities in content to the other prophets as well as the wisdom literature. Daniel is also quoted frequently in the New Testament.
    Sin and grace are seen in Daniel particularly through the importance of the first commandment. Daniel and the other Israelites in exile maintain their worship to the greatest extent possible (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 444). Their lives of piety make a strong contrast to the surrounding culture. In Daniel's prophecies, God's grace is also seen in his predicted work of restoration. The messianic nature of these prophecies particularly describes the suffering savior we find in Christ.

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Ezekiel - It's a Bizarre World

6/25/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
6/25/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty-Five: Ezekiel." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (417-432).

    Ezekiel was a priest from Judea who was deported at the time of Babylon's mass deportation of 597 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 417). He took up a call as a prophet around 592 BC at the age of 30. For this reason, Lessing and Steinmann consider it appropriate to consider Ezekiel either as a pre-exilic or post-exilic prophet. His moral teaching and mentions of historical crises are similar to the work of earlier prophets. Yet, the relatively bizarre imagery and actions are more typical of the post-exilic prophets.
    Lessing and Steinmann observe that almost the entirety of Ezekiel is in the first person, the prophecies were to be written down, and the name of Ezekiel was associated with the book fairly early (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 418). The higher critical community is not satisfied with this understanding, and tends to create different theories of redaction and authorship.
    From a literary standpoint, Ezekiel 1-24 is primarily concerned with condemnation while chapters 33-48 promises return and restoration. Chapter 24 depicts the siege of Jerusalem, chapter 33 its capture (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 418). Chapters 5-32 condemn seven foreign nations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 419). The text of Ezekiel regularly uses brief phrases which are repeated many times. Images are also repeated frequently. Lessing and Steinmann note frequent allegories and similarities to inscriptions on buildings (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 421).
    The text of Ezekiel is difficult, in part because the Septuagint is about 5% shorter than the Masoretic Text (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 421). The material is possibly the second hardest prophet to read.
    Ezeliel uses many historical markers, and seems to Lessing and Steinmann to be nearly completely in chronological order (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 422). They briefly trace the overall arc of history of Ezekiel's time period.
    Lessing and Steinmann consider God's glory to be the central theological concept in Ezekiel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 423). This is shown in the visions of chapter 1 and chapters 8-11. A second important theme is the covenant from Sinai. God has promised to be the God of his chosen people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 424). A third core concept is that of God's marriage to Israel. Though Israel is unfaithful, God is always faithful. He will redeem his people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 425). Fourth, Lessing and Steinmann see a strong apocalyptic message in Ezekiel. The land will be cleansed of its defilement while the other nations will be destroyed. Lessing and Steinmann observe that some scholars take the cryptic statements about "Gog" and "Magog" to refer to Babylon (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 426). A fifth theological emphasis in Ezekiel is that of God's temple, seen in chapters 40-48. The temple in Ezekiel is missing most of its furnishings, yet Lessing and Steinmann observe with God present nothing else is necessary (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 427). Lessing and Steinmann describe the vision of the temple in considerable detail.
    Christ is seen in Ezekiel as a "new David who will shepherd and rule his people" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 429). He is also seen as the embodiment of the temple and the source of the living water. There is a relatively constant alternation in Ezekiel between sin and grace. The people are cast out but will be restored (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 430). The sin of Judah is clear in their idolatry. God's promise to David, however, still stands.

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Singing the Blues, With Good Reason

6/18/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
6/18/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty-Four: Lamentations." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (407-416).

    Lamentations is an example of prayers of lament and complaint. Although they can list many points of lament in the Scriptures, Lessing and Steinmann view Lamentations as the "stellar" example (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 407). The time period of Lamentations was certainly one of intense suffering.
    Though Lamentations has no ascription to an author, it traditionally is viewed as the work of Jeremiah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 408). Lessing and Steinmann mention modern scholarship which rejects Jeremiah as a possible author. However, they find no statements in the book which would render it impossible for Jeremiah to have been the author. They provide a number of thematic and linguistic elements which Jeremiah and Lamentations hold in common (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 408-409).
    If Lamentations was written by Jeremiah or another witness of the fall of Jerusalem, the date would be after August of 587 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 410). Lessing and Steinmann consider the composition to be not long after the fall of Jerusalem.
    From a literary standpoint, Lessing and Steinmann observe an acrostic structure. "Lam 1, 2, and 4 are poems of twenty-two verses, one for each letter of the Hebrew alphabet. chapters 1 and 2 have three lines for each stanza, with the first line beginning with a successive letter of the alphabet . . . Chapter 4 follows this same pattern except that each stanza contains only two lines. Chapter 3, like the first two chapters, contains three-line stanzas. However, in this case, all three lines of each stanza begin with the same letter, once again following the order of the alphabet" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 410). Chapter 5, with two lines per stanza, is not acrostic, perhaps symbolic of the ruined state of Jerusalem (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 411). The chapters are apparently separate but related poems.
    Lessing and Steinmann note that much scholarship recognizes a poetic meter in Lamentations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 411). They consider it to be a poetic device but question whether Hebrew poetry can be considered to have a poetic meter at all.
    While some scholars consider Lamentations to be influenced by Sumerian and Babylonian laments, there is some question whether there is actual literary influence (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 412). Lessing and Steinmann consider that there is likely cultural and situational connection, but that a literary link is not likely (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 413).
    Lessing and Steinmann find three prominent theological themes in Lamentations. While they don't describe the themes in detail, they enumerate first God's righteous wrath, second God's vengeance, and third a call for repentance (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 413). These three themes together provide an image of both sin and grace throughout Lamentations. God's work is right, even when he chastises his people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 414). When God uses enemies of his people as an instrument of judgment, those enemies are still responsible for their actions. All people need to come to God as repentant sinners.
    While Christ and his work are not specifically present in Lamentations, Lessing and Steinamnn see God's mercy presaging Jesus (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 414). He is the one who rescues God's people from their exile and restores the nation.

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Jeremiah - A Sad and Complex Time

6/11/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
6/11/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty-Three: Jeremiah." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (389-406).

    Jeremiah, as well as having more words than any other book in the Bible, has a complicated structure, as well as a challenging "relationship to a much shorter Greek version" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 389). However, Lessing and Steinmann find the book extremely rewarding for reading and study.
    In the rise of critical scholarship, Duhm and Mowinckel considered only the poetic portions of Jeremiah to be written by the prophet. Mowinckel divided the work into four layers of redaction (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 389). Recent scholarship has considered the prophet to be a literary construction and the work as an attempt to communicate to an audience in exile after the fall of Jerusalem. The reading suggests that different oracles were in existence, but were gathered together to invent a message of a prophet (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 390). Lessing and Steinmann root this critical scholarship in a denial of the text of Jeremiah as something intended to be both heard and read (Jeremiah 36). Counter to this view, Lessing and Steinman take Jeremiah as the work of the prophet Jeremiah, from 1:1 through 51:64 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 390). 
    On first reading, the text of Jeremiah seems to be lacking in cohesion (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 390). However, this may have something to do with the author's intent to depict a world which is in apparent disarray. The time of Jeremiah and his original audience was characterized by disaster, ambiguity, and disorder. Lessing and Steinmann do, however, observe that the book does have a fairly agreed upon basic structure, with chapter 1 as an overview, chapters 2-25 as a first main section, chapters 26-51 as a second main section, and an epilogue in chapter 52 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 391). The first main section is largely poetic, while the second is largely presented in prose. Beyond this, the literary outline is not terribly clear, though Lessing and Steinmann do attempt to provide a more thorough outline based on topics discussed. The book has many doublets and recurring phrases, as well as prophetic visions, signs, promises, and statements about other nations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 394). Jeremiah often seems consumed with the attacks he receives from his community, but also with those attacks as a demonstration that God's people are rejecting God.
    From a textual standpoint, Lessing and Steinmann note considerable debate. The Masoretic Text and Septuagint are significantly different, with the Septuagint being approximately 2700 words shorter than the Masoretic text (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 394). There is some thought that the Septuagint version may have been a translation of a different text than the one which led to the Masoretic Text. This proposition could indicate two different versions of Jeremiah in concurrent use. 
    Jeremiah's ministry covers a period of over 40 years, beginning in 629 and ending sometime after Jerusalem was destroyed in 587 B.C. Lessing and Steinmann, citing Jeremiah 42-44, consider Jeremiah to have died in Egypt about 580 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 395). Lessing and Steinmann briefly review the international tumults of the time, with Assyria and Egypt in a coalition being defeated by Babylon by the years 605, then Egypt retaliating against Babylon in 601. Israel, geographically located between Babylon and Egypt, suffered extensive damage and privation during the period. Jeremiah 20-52 mentions Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar over 200 times (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 395). After the destruction of Jerusalem in 587, possibly as many as 15,000 Israelites were deported to Babylon. This would have been profoundly devastating to Jerusalem.
    From a theological perspective, Lessing and Steinmann consider sin to be prominent. The Babylonian exile is seen as a result of the spiritual infidelity of the people of Israel, an infidelity often portrayed as a broken marriage (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 397). The temple had become a holy site in which the people of Israel would try to escape their sin, though not to change their lives. The result is that the people who are essentially a wasteland are consigned to live in a wasteland. The specific instruments of judgment against Israelite sin, frequently appearing in Jeremiah are "sword," "famine," and "pestilence" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 398). 
    A second substantial theme in Jeremiah is the written word of God (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 398). Jeremiah's mission is to bring God's word, often in written form, to Judah as well as to other nations. Jeremiah's speaking of God's word resulted in persecution. However, bringing God's word is considered "joy and delight" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 398). Jeremiah 31:33 expresses God's promise to write Torah on the hearts of his people. This leads to forgiveness and a removal of sin. The second half of the book moves from Jeremiah bringing the spoken word of God to bringing a written word (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 399). These written works result in ongoing persecution for Jeremiah, but do reaffirm the power of the written word.
    A third theological theme in Jeremiah is God's word being enacted through symbolic actions. For instance, in Jeremiah 13 the burial of a linen loincloth and its subsequent recovery indicates the destruction of the holy nation of Israel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 400). The breaking of a clay pot demonstrates judgment. Other symbolic actions are spread throughout Jeremiah. Possibly of most note is the move in Jeremiah 32 of Jeremiah to purchase a piece of land at the very time that the economy and safety of Judah are collapsing. The land which was under severe trial, had a future of peace and prosperity.
    Lessing and Steinmann find Jeremiah to be a prophet of the land, a fourth substantial theological theme (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 401). There are numerous hymns depicting God as the good sovereign who has right to all the land. Israel is not separable either from the land or from Yahweh, who makes promises for those who have no land (Jeremiah 29). 
    True and false prophecy serve as a fifth major theme in Jeremiah. False prophets have not actually received God's word, and are lying (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 402). Their message of swift restoration of Israel's glory is not, in Jeremiah, correct. Though there is restoration to come, it will be after a lengthy exile to Babylon. 
    Lessing and Steinmann see the role of Christ in Jeremiah as central to the new covenant described in chapter 31. In the New Testament Jesus is presented as the one who comes because God has remembered his covenant. The work of Christ is a direct result of the faithlessness of all humanity, the problem central to Jeremiah. Jeremiah contains the promise that a "righteous branch" will come from the line of David (Jeremiah 23:5; 33:15). This is fulfilled in Jesus (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 402). Jeremiah, like Jesus, faced opposition from family, friends, political leaders, and priestly leaders (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 404). 
    The concepts of sin and grace are apparent throughout Jeremiah. The nation is being harmed by her sin, and will receive punishment, but will eventually be restored (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 404). God's promise remains, despite the fall of political, economic, and religious organizations.There will still be suffering in the restoration, but the people will be restored and can express the joy of their salvation.

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Isaiah, Prophet of the Gospel

6/4/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
6/4/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty-Two: Isaiah." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (367-388).

    Lessing and Steinmann identify Isaiah as outstanding among the Old Testament writings "for sheer grandeur, majesty, and supreme artistry" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 367). Further, they find a very strong influence of Isaiah upon the New Testament writings.
    Since 1789, with a commentary by J.C. Döderlein, the text of Isaiah has drawn critical scholarly attention. With a division of Isaiah into three portions (1-39, 40-55, 56-66), study of the book as a single, unified work became "unimaginable" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 367). Scholars have mainly considered Isaiah as a smattering of texts with no overall coherence. This opinion held sway until an article in 1979 by Ackroyd positing that the texts were collected as they were to present the prophet Isaiah, rather than to present a unified prophetic message (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 367). Since 1979, many scholars have begun to revise their approach to the work. Critics do still normally assume some sort of composite authorship and editorial process, but with at least a final stage which had a coherent goal (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 368). References to the book from the New Testament, as well as manuscript evidence, promote the view that Isaiah was one literary work, coming from the pen of Isaiah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 369).
    Lessing and Steinmann observe Isaiah as a work arranged topically (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 369). The unity of the topical arrangement is regularly neglected by the critical community. Lessing and Steinmann see an intricate set of connections among the topics, which suggests unity of composition. They describe the literary sophistication in some detail, then provide an outline (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 369-373). Lessing and Steinmann divide Isaiah into three main sections, based on judgment (1-39), salvation (40-55), and a call for response (56-66).
    Lessing and Steinmann describe two manuscripts of Isaiah, one of which is nearly intact (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 374). The intact scroll has been dated at least three times, with estimated dates of 341-325 BC, 202-114 BC, and 201-93 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 374). The manuscript is in strong agreement with the Masoretic Text.
    Isaiah records events between the reigns of Uzziah (6:1) and Cyrus (44:28; 45:1). Lessing and Steinmann note Uzziah's reign from 791-740 and Cyrus from 539-530. This requires a relatively long period of time to be covered, as the period from Uzziah's death to the rise of Cyrus is approximately a hundred years (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 374). Lessing and Steinmann briefly describe a number of historical events which occurred during the time of Isaiah.
    From a theological point of view, Lessing and Steinmann find God's holiness pre-eminent (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 376). 
    God's plan for his people and history is a second important theme (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 376). God is always working in history, particularly through his chosen people. Lessing and Steinmann note God's alien work of destroying the wicked (Isaiah 28:21) compared with his proper work of restoration (Isaiah 2:1-5) (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 377). 
    A third prominent theme in Isaiah is the gospel of God who comforts and protects Israel (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 377). Isaiah shows God as the redeemer, a special personal role of a close relative (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 378).
    Lessing and Steinmann further note the centrality of the concept of the Servant in Isaiah (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 378). While Christians have routinely considered the servant to be Jesus, a "collective view identifies the servant as a group of people who are described in individualistic terms" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 378). The role of the servant is normally to substitute for Israel by displaying God to other nations, and to reconcile Israel t oGod (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 379).
    Lessing and Steinmann consider righteousness to be the most important theme in Isaiah, with the concept appearing 81 times, spread throughout the book (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 381). God's people are called to receive God's righteous works and become part of the city of righteousness largely in terms of moral behavior. Chapters 40-55 make it more dependent on justice which Israel should do (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 381). This is additionally seen as a way God brings salvation to Israel. In Isaiah 56-66 it becomes clear that human attempts at righteousness have fallen short. Therefore, passive righteousness, imputed to people by God, becomes the solution to sin (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 382).
    The created order is yet another important theme in Isaiah. Lessing and Steinmann identify many elements to the creation, including sentient and non-sentient  elements among the things to be recognized (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 383). The interactions between humans and the rest of creation are intricate and symbolic of greater truths.
    Isaiah depicts Christ in powerful ways. Lessing and Steinmann adduce numerous passages from Isaiah which are noted in the New Testament as portraying Jesus' life and work (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 384). Though the people of Isaiah have sinned, chiefly through idolatry (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 385), they are provided for through God's grace in raising up Cyrus to release them from Babylon, and by the eventual work of the Suffering Servant.

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Man and Woman? Christ and Church?

5/21/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
5/21/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Twenty: Song of Songs." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (339-354).

    Lessing and Steinmann note the frank discussion of attraction of man and woman found in the Song of Songs, which reflects the importance of the sexuality of humans, particularly within marriage (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 339). The superscription of the text indicates it was composed by Solomon, though many scholars have seen it as a dedicatory statement. This would allow for composition after the time of Solomon, even several centuries afterward. Interpretation of the text and of Solomon's role in it is a difficult matter. He is mentioned in 3:7-11 and 8:11-12, first positively and second negatively (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 340). The book has been compared to other love poetry from antiquity. However, connections are not conclusive and do little to identify date or authorship. While there are loan words which are sometimes seen in later Hebrew works, Lessing and Steinmann observe those words were also used earlier than the Persian period (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 341). They find no reason to think this is not consistent with possible usage by a king who was known for wisdom and interactions with a wide spectrum of people over a large geographic area, such as Solomon. In general, critical scholars date the work later, while more conservative scholars consider it to come from the time of Solomon.
    The intent of the author is a matter of considerable debate. Many early interpreters considered Song of Songs as an allegory (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 342). This effectively avoided admitting of it as a sensual love song. Allegorical interpretations regularly view the work as an interpretation of the love and union between God and humans. Christians have specifically considered it as reflective of the love of Christ and the Church. Luther took the text as a depiction of "the relationship between God and Solomon, forming a kind of political allegory from which Christian rulers can learn to govern rightly" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 342). The allegorical approaches have largely fallen out of favor in recent generations. In the place of an allegorical interpretation, more modern interpreters tend to view Song of Songs as "an extended poem about the love between a man and a woman" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 343). The imagery of physical intimacy is plain on the surface of the work. Another approach to the Song of Songs is that it is based on a dramatic form, akin to something that could be present in a theatrical production (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 344). They note the three main characters as the Shulamite, a country shepherd, and Solomon, with an added chorus that comments on the events. However, Lessing and Steinmann consider the dramatic lines not to be clear. Song of Songs could also be "an anthology of love poems appropriate for a wedding celebration" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 344). However, there is no known practice of using such a collection within ancient Israel. Others have suggested the work is influenced by pagan fertility cults. Again, this theory falls short as the pagan cults always have gods and goddesses as major characters, a feature which is lacking in Song of Songs (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 345). Some recent interpreters have posited an understanding of it as a love poem about the marital bliss which is a gift of God and which reflects God's love for humans (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 345). In the end, this kind of an analogical approach regularly becomes much like the allegory used in the past. Lessing and Steinmann suggest rather "it ought to be understood that the language in the Song is poetic and cumulatively paints a picture of this magnificent divine love" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 346). This avoids attempts at over-interpretation.
    Song of Songs uses a great deal of imagery from nature, with specific mention of a dozen or more specific types of plants and at least ten animal species (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 346). The pastoral settings are common, with only two different passages set in an urban scene.
    Lessing and Steinmann find references to seven or more places in Israel, covering areas throughout Solomon's territory (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 347). Five locations not within Israel are also referred to. The references to settings within Solomon's realm suggest to Lessing and Steinmann that it is rightly set during his reign (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 347). 
    The structure of Song of Songs is "notoriously difficult to discern" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 348). They provide an outline, but admit that other structural analyses are possible.
    Song of Songs has not always been readily accepted as canonical, primarily due to its sexual content. However, Lessing and Steinmann conclude that early evidence does place it within canonical tradition, and that attempts to exclude it are based on misunderstandings of rabbinic statements about which books "defile the hands" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 349). 
    Though Song of Songs does not have a large amount of substantially theological content, Lessing and Steinmann note that the text is generally understood to argue for sexuality only within marriage. This faithfulness is a significant theological concept (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 350). Physical intimacy is to be between the Shulamite and her Beloved. The chorus is not to interfere in any way. There is also a signal in 8:6-7 that God claims and marks his people for himself. Appropriate relationships can be recognized (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 351).
    Christ may be seen in Song of Songs through the analogy of marriage and the relationship of Christ and His Church (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 352). Sin and grace can be seen in the contrast of the times of abandonment and the exclusion of the chorus from the love relationship of the Shulamite and the Beloved, as well as acceptance and inclusion involved in the relationship of the man and woman (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 352). 

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All Is Vanity (Except When It's Not)

5/14/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
5/14/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Nineteen: Ecclesiastes." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (327-338).

    Lessing and Steinmann candidly admit that there are enduring problems in the world, and that they are made much of in some circles. Intellectuals will frequently conclude that we are in a hopeless, dystopian place. However, Lessing and Steinmann observe that we modern humans are not the only people who are concerned about the state of the world (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 327). The themes also are prominent in the book we know as Ecclesiastes. The first person narrator in Ecclesiastes is called "Qoheleth," which probably indicates a preacher, teacher, or spokesperson. The Septuagint translated that Hebrew word as "ekklesiastes," meaning "a member of the assembly. The narrator is self-identified in chapter one verse 12 as "king over Israel in Jerusalem," called also in verse one "son of David, king in Jerusalem." Traditionally this has been taken to be Solomon. However, Lessing and Steinmann do note a few passages in the third person, which suggests to many a later editor. There are also suggestions that chapters 3-12 make critical observations of powerful people. (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 329). This may not seem as likely an activity for the king to have done. It may rather fit a relatively common individual who posed as the king in the opening of the book. However, Lessing and Steinmann note it would be just as easy for Solomon to have adopted the mindset of a common individual for those chapters. Lessing and Steinmann conclude that though there may well be arrangement and redaction by a later individual, the bulk of the work seems to be statements of Qoheleth, whom they take most likely to be Solomon (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 330).
    There is, as might be predicted, considerable difference of scholarly opinion about the date of the work. "The latest possible date for the writing of Ecclesiastes is 200 BC, since the book is mentioned in Ben Sira, which was written about that time" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 330). That late date may be warranted by influence on the text from Aramaic usage, which is typically later in history. However, interactions with Arameans were common from the time of King David onward (2 Samuel 8:5-6). The usage may simply be a slightly peculiar idiom of the author. Persian loan words are also present, but Lessing and Steinmann note Persia's antiquity and Solomon's interactions with foreign nations would not make use of loan words surprising (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 330). The earliest reasonable time of composition would be in the reign of Solomon, as there's mention of a son of David who was king (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 331).
    Ecclesiastes contains numerous repeated terms and phrases, regularly referring to the transitory nature of things and to universal observations of things "under the sun" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 332). Futility is expressed as "striving" or "chasing the wind." 
    From a structural standpoint, Lessing and Steinmann observe the prologue and epilogue are easily identified. However, 1:12-12:8 are not outlined easily, with topics running into one another (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 332). 
    From a theological standpoint, Lessing and Steinmann identify a strong theme of life which, in earthly estimation, is futile (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 333). All life's accomplishments and earthly desires are transient. Some situations appear unfair and are decidedly painful. However, Lessing and Steinmann note that in Ecclesiastes not everything is like a vapor. "Qoheleth seeks to find meaning and permanence through human wisdom, work and professional life, joy and pleasure, riches and wealth (Eccl 2:1-11). Yet, each of these fails and proves once again that human life from a strictly human perspective is like a vapor" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 333). It is not a vapor when seen from a divine perspective. 
    A second important theme in Ecclesiastes is that of death and possessions, which "are intimately related and are always discussed in close proximity to each other" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 333). Because our earthly life ends in death, it is important to use our earthly possessions correctly. Appropriate enjoyment of possessions is of value, and is a means of recognizing the good provision God has made for us.
    A third important theme in Ecclesiastes is that of a meaningful life. "Only God can give meaning to life because he is permanent and unchanging" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 334). All that is truly good comes from God. Lessing and Steinmann provide a number of references to the idea throughout Ecclesiastes. Because life "under the sun" is not the entirety of life, we look to the meaning given by God, who will continue to rule us in eternity (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 335). Evil will be condemned, and good things will be remembered and blessed.
    Christ can be seen in Ecclesiastes in 12:11, where the words of the wise "are given by one Shepherd" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 335). Lessing and Steinmann provide numerous other references to God in the Old Testament, recognized in Christ in the New Testament, as a shepherd, caring for his people. Ecclesiastes concludes that all wisdom comes from God, who we recognize in Christ. For this reason, we can also see sin and grace as pictured in Ecclesiastes. Sin is regularly seen in the futility of a life which leads to death (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 336). However, the fact that there is such a thing as righteousness, good, and wisdom in the world is a matter of God's grace. Lessing and Steinmann cite Ecclesiastes 7:15-20 to demonstrate that while we are cautioned against excessive fastidiousness in our righteousness, we are to receive God's grace by faith (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, pp. 336-337). It is God's gracious care for his people which gives them joy.

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Proverbs - - Not Confucius

5/7/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
5/7/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Eighteen: Proverbs." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (315-326).

    Lessing and Steinmann understand Proverbs to serve as a guide to grasping God's mind and the revelation of his will, rather than some sort of a self-help book (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 315). It is grounded in God's love, though it says little specifically about his love.
    Proverbs is normally associated with Solomon, yet there are multiple authors cited within the text. These include Solomon, "wise people," Agur, and Lemuel (or his mother) (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 316). The authorship is thus spread from the time of Solomon to near the end of the monarchy in Judah.
    Some scholarship assigns the Proverbs 1-9 to an author later than Solomon's time. However, they do so based on the advanced grasp of wisdom and the length of the narrative. Lessing and Steinmann do not consider these to be good reasons to assign a later date to the composition (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 316). Aphorisms and longer essays have coexisted many times in history. An organizational picture of Proverbs may suggest that 1:1-22:16 belong together as the work of one author, presumably Solomon. Lessing and Steinmann provide an organizational chart of proverbs 1-24. "Steinmann maintains that Prov 1-9 and Prov 10:1-22:16 most likely come from the same author. Since Proverbs identifies that author as Solomon, there is good reason to accept that Israel's wise king wrote this material" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 317). 
    Lessing and Steinmann observe that two collections of sayings follow Proverbs 22:16. They speculate that these sayings may come from people mentioned in 1 Kings 4:29031 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 318). Another possibility is that some of the sayings may come from a collection of Egyptian wisdom, which may have come from the 12th century B.C. 
    Proverbs 25-29 states that it was transcribed by "the men of King Hezekiah," (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 318). It is not clear whether the section originated with Solomon or with the transcriptionists mentioned.
    Proverbs 30 is internally credited to Agur, son of Jakeh (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 318). Agur most likely was living and active in the seventh century B.C.
    Proverbs 31 is attributed to King Lemuel's mother, at least for verses 1-9. Verses 10-31 are an acrostic poem which is not so clearly attributed (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 319). Lessing and Steinmann suggest that Lemuel "may be a throne name for one of Judah's kings, most likely Hezekiah (716-687) or Josiah (641-610)" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 319). 
    Proverbs contains multiple genres. Much of chapters 10-29 consists of brief aphorisms, which themselves can be classified into various types. Chapters 1-9 contains extended discourse, while chapter 31 is an acrostic poem and 30:1-10 consists of prayers (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 319). Some portions of Proverbs are difficult to understand, largely because they refer to customs which are no longer used in our society (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 321). There is often a plain literal meaning in an aphorism, but a deeper, underlying, symbolic meaning as well.
    Lessing and Steinmann find that vocabulary of Proverbs includes words associated with wisdom and with foolishness (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 321). The wisdom comes from God, and depends on a relationship with God. Lessing and Steinmann further mention the use of different words used for foolishness and for fools in Proverbs, bringing out some of the nuances of several (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 321). 
    The sayings in Proverbs can be classified according to the way they communicate. Some describe life but don't give advice (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 322). Others add conclusions which are to be noted and to influence behavior. Some reinforce positive wisdom and prohibit foolishness. There is a rich supply of each type of saying.
    The text of Proverbs is found in Hebrew, the Septuagint, and several other ancient sources, mostly dependent on the Septuagint (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 322). Several places in the Masoretic Text seem to show scribal corruption (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 323). The Septuagint tends to follow a text nearly identical to that of the Masoretic Text. However, there are passages which have been paraphrased and even rewritten. The Septuagint also shows some rearrangement of different parts of the book.
    Themes of Proverbs range widely, "including wealth and poverty, work and laziness, honesty and deceit, marital faithfulness and adultery, and most importantly, wisdom and foolishness" ((Lessing & Steinmann 2014, pp. 323-324). 
    Lessing and Steinmann find relatively few direct references to the coming Messiah, however, they do find that God's Wisdom is spoken of in a way that points to God the Son (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 324). 
    Sin and grace can be seen frequently, especially in the aphorisms of Proverbs (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 325). There is  behavior which pleases God, as well as that which does not please God. Proverbs is not heavy on passages describing God's grace to sinners. However, God remains the God of promise in Proverbs (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 325). 

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Singing the Truth

4/30/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
4/30/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Seventeen: Psalms." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. (297-314).

    Lessing and Steinmann introduce Psalms as the songbook of Israel, noting that there are numerous different forms of songs present (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 297). The New Testament references Psalms more than 400 times. While the book is generally thought of as a collection of songs by David, there are numerous other authors. Lessing and Steinmann observe that 73 of the 150 Psalms are attributed to David in the Masoretic Text, while the Septuagint attributes more. However, the attributions may or may not be a clear indication of authorship. Yet David remains the putative author of many, and the New Testament does assume that the attributions are actually a sign of authorship (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 298). In all, nearly 100 of the Psalms have names associated with them. Lessing and Steinmann provide a chart, derived from The Lutheran Study Bible cataloging the names linked to the different Psalms (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 298). 
    In reality, the Psalter is a collection of prayers (which could have been set to music). The authors range from Moses (Psalm 90) to after the period of the Babylonian exile (Ps. 126). The collection may well have developed gradually, with different clusters of Psalms being gathered and recognized as belonging together (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 198). The Psalter is divided into five books, reflecting the structure of the Pentateuch.
    The Psalms are recognized as Hebrew poetry. Lessing and Steinmann observe that the concept of poetry in Hebrew is difficult to evaluate. Roughly half of the Old Testament is considered to be poetry. However, Hebrew poetry is distinguished from prose by "many different elements which elevate style and provide formality and strictness of organization" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 299). Poetry and prose thus may exist on a continuum, as opposed to the concept of poetry which is based on specific structures, meters, or rhyme schemes (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 300). While there may be rhythm, a meter based on groups of syllables cannot be identified. An important feature of Hebrew poetry is parallelism. Poetic writing is also often divided into stanzas or strophes.
    Lessing and Steinmann note that Psalms were typically studied in isolation, without context, prior to the 1990s (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 301). Since that time, there has been a greater interest in seeing the Psalms within the overall structure of the Psalter. Some, most notably Gerald Wilson (The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter, 1985 dissertation) have considered that the book of Psalms as a whole contains "plot, characters, and narrative movement" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 301). Wilson has identified Psalms which are pivotal parts of the overall structure and which serve to move attention through the book as a whole. The reader is drawn from concentration on the failings of the earthly monarchs to the eternal perfection of God in his glory (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 302). Lessing and Steinmann find this structural analysis helpful in interpretation of the thematic elements of Psalms.
    Superscriptions on the Psalms in the Septuagint vary from those in the Masoretic Text. The Septuagint has only two psalms without titles, while the Masoretic Text has 34 (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 303). Lessing and Steinmann observe that some of the terms used are relatively obscure.
    Reviewing the types of Psalms, Lessing and Steinmann find that the genres posited by form critics have fallen short, as many Psalms fall into multiple genres. Yet many can be considered in terms of their content. Lessing and Steinmann note content of "orientation, disorientation, new orientation…Torah psalms, imprecatory psalms, psalms of trust, creation psalms, and acrostic psalms" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 303). A prominent type of Psalm is that of lament, which Lessing and Steinmann discuss in rather more detail. These Psalms express the honest disappointment and suffering in God's people. At the heart of many is an impression that God is not present during our times of trouble (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 304). Even in times of trouble and lament, however, Lessing and Steinmann observe that the psalmists continue to cling to God. He has made promises which the psalmists know he intends to keep.
    Lessing and Steinmann observe that related psalms are often grouped together, a structural element of the Psalter as a whole (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 305). The Psalter also tends to use different divine names predominantly in its different sections.
    From a theological point of view, the concepts of Torah and Messiah are very important. The themes emerge in Psalms 1 and 2 respectively, driving the reader to see that the Psalter is about God's word coming to his people, both in his covenant with Israel and his promises to bring a messianic king (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 306). The persistence of a motif of kingship even after the monarchy had been broken points to an eschatological hope, again bringing out the messianic expectations.
    The righteous and the wicked provide another main theme of Psalms (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 307). While the righteous depend on God, the wicked think God doesn't notice them. They are described as various types of beasts, such as oxen, lions, and dogs. Those who are upright, righteous followers of God, receive the blessings of God and engage in godly behavior. They are regularly seen as recipients of righteousness, given to them by God, rather than as those who earn God's favor. The righteous come to God for shelter and protection.
    There is some debate over the way the Psalms were used in Israel's history, particularly since they were written at different times. Lessing and Steinmann observe that we can find contextual clues. For instance, the motion of the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem can be associated with a number of the Psalms. Others reflect on victory in battle or difficult times in which God's people especially needed to seek God's face (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 308). Various rituals of worship are described as well.
    The Psalter refers numerous times to different nations. God's name is exalted among all the nations (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 309). This concept of the universal reign of God indicates a worldwide mission, not only over all nations but through all time. In the Psalms Yahweh is the lord of all, no matter what.
    The imprecatory Psalms, such as Psalm 58 and Psalm 137 are considered difficult to interpret due to their forceful and graphic calls for vengeance. Lessing and Steinmann list no less than 32 imprecatory Psalms. The calls for vengeance may fairly be seen as consistent with God's promises (Genesis 12:3; Deuteronomy 32:35, etc.) to take vengeance on those who are hostile toward his people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 310). Lessing and Steinmann observe that the culture of the ancient Near East was full of promises of blessing or curses. It is essential that we recall that God is the one who rightfully takes vengeance. This is, after all, the only way that God's people will be rescued from others (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 311). 
    The suffering seen in Psalms, as well as the defense of the humble can easily be understood as fulfilled in Christ (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 311). There are also many other promises in the Psalms which are fulfilled in Christ. Lessing and Steinmann list a substantial number of them.
    The sins of the wicked and the grace of God are described in considerable detail in Psalms (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 312). Not only the sins of the wicked are present, but Lessing and Steinmann observe that the righteous people are also seen as falling into sins and needing redemption. The overarching picture is that of God removing sins from his people (Psalm 103:12). He is the God who keeps his covenant and redeems his people. 

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Job - God's Grace, Not Our Works

4/23/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
4/23/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Sixteen: Job." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. (pp. 279-296). St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. 

The book of Job operates on two different levels. On the earthly level, Job loses almost all his possessions and family, and is confronted by people who uniformly advise him that it is a direct result of his sin (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 279). On the heavenly level, Yahweh and the accuser engage each other regarding whether or not Job serves God freely or so as to be rewarded with earthly gain.

The events described in Job best fit a context of Israel's captivity in Egypt. However, the emphasis on wisdom fits the culture of Solomon's kingdom. Lessing and Steinmann take the writings to belong mostly to the time of captivity in Egypt (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 280). The people who are described can be identified in terms of their not so distant ancestors at the time of Abraham. Place names further suggest Job as an Edomite, probably between the 18th and 15th centuries BC. Job's function as the priest for his family would not fit a time after the captivity in Egypt. Names and monetary units also point to a time prior to that of Moses (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 281). Linguistic usage also points to an early date. Lessing and Steinmann briefly discuss models which place composition during the post-exilic period, but reject those models based on the greater evidence for an early date (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 282). 

From a literary standpoint, though some scholars feel a need to rearrange the various speeches, Lessing and Steinmann find its organization in three cycles of speeches to be cohesive in itself. However, they propose that the book is actually not centered on three cycles, but on a repeated fourfold grouping (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 282). They describe this repetitive structure in some detail.

Job fits well in the genre of wisdom literature, with the significant reflection on divine wisdom (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 284). It further contains forensic and historical elements, though it does not mention any actual world events (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 285).

While many interpreters view Job as dealing with why the righteous suffer, Lessing and Steinmann think it more appropriate to consider it in terms of why righteous people trust God (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 285). Job's argument, unlike the argument of his comforters (accusers) is that we trust God because he is trustworthy, not because he gives us things. Lessing and Steinmann describe the different views in some details. "The friends . . . argue that if people suffer, then they have sinned. By reversing the cause and effect, they maintained that all suffering can be explained by sin" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 287). Job, on the other hand, maintains that we don't know the cause of suffering, but that we do know God is the one who vindicates us. This is the reason the righteous serve God. The need, then, becomes that of a mediator who argues before God on our behalf. The living hope of the mediator/redeemer is Job's confidence (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 288).

Lessing and Steinmann note that Elihu, the fourth person with speeches, is set apart from the others (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 289). He alone has a genealogy, a reason to speak, and a reason for earlier silence. Elihu thus is shown to play a significant role, as he then bridges the gap between the earlier speakers and God's response. He introduces the work of atonement, rather than making a simple demand of repentance (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 290).

In Job 38:1, God reveals himself with a clear message. He is the only one who should actually ask questions and is the only one with ultimate answers (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 290). He then describes the complex world and his ability to understand it adequately. He alone can justify people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 291).

Recognizing the character of Yahweh moves Job to repentance of his thought that God might be unjust (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 292). Job has realized that God is not chaotic. He is simply beyond Job's (or his friends') conception. "He had thought that God was cruel because he had misinterpreted his sufferings as punishment rather than as an opportunity for the exercise and increase of his faith in God's grace (Job 42:5)" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 292).

The problem of the righteous suffering foreshadows the New Testament portrayal of Christ as the true righteous person suffering (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 293). The attacks on Job similarly foreshadow the passion narrative in the New Testament. Further, Job offers sacrifice in chapter on, not for his own sins but for the sins of others. The recurring theme of a need for a mediator points to Chrsit as well.

Lessing and Steinmann see the theme of sin and grace at the center of Job. "The issue in the book of Job is whether the relationship between God and people is rooted in judgment or grace" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 293). In the end, human sin is embodied in a desire to gain God's favor through human righteousness (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 294). God shows it as a matter of divine grace.

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Esther - An Allusive World

4/16/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
4/16/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Fifteen: Esther." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. (pp. 267-278). St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. 

Lessing and Steinmann observe the striking differences between Esther and the other Old Testament books. In particular, Esther never mentions worship or God, and is absent from the works discovered in the Dead Sea scrolls (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 267).

The author of Esther is not identified. However, the knowledge of the setting suggests an author who was Judean but was living in Susa (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 267). The events occurred between 483 and 473 BC, but 9:28 views Purim as an annual commemoration. Chapter ten suggests a date after Xerxes' death in 465. Greek customs, which spread rapidly after 331 BC, are not a factor. Lessing and Steinmann suggest a date around 460 BC. They observe that Xerxes is a Geek name, and that the Hebrew equivalent is Ahasuerus, both attempts to pronounce "Khshayarshan" (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 268). He was the son of Darius, and served as king at the height of Persian power.

Esther describes Judeans who remained in Persia after some had returned to Jerusalem (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 269). The people had assimilated to Persian culture, at least to some extent, judging from the names of Esther and Mordecai being derived from Ishtar and Marduk. Lessing and Steinmann observe the call for a fast without a call for prayer (4:3, 16; 9:31) as a possible sign of a cultural difference between Susa and Jerusalem. There are a number of subtle statements which depict God at work behind the scenes but never express it overtly (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 270).

Esther exists in two different Greek versions, the "Old Greek" which is longer, and the "Alpha text" which is shorter than the Masoretic Text. Both Greek versions expand various parts of the narrative (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 271). Neither is considered to depend on the other or on the Masoretic Text. Lessing and Steinmann provide a synopsis (English) of the additions (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 271-272).

Various scholars have disputed the historicity of Esther, mostly based on chronologies in Herodotus and Ctesias (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 272). Xerxes was known to travel, and his presence in Sardis would not eliminate his being in Susa at times. Some scholars suggest that Esther is called Amestris in historical records (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 273).

Feasts and celebrations are an important theme in Esther. Lessing and Steinmann take them as signs of God's work behind the scenes (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 274). Even secular events can be times of divine activity.

The ongoing hostility between Israel and the Amalekites, first recorded in Exodus 17, re-appears in the person of Haman, a descendant of an Amalekite king (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 274). Mordecai was a descendant of Saul's father, Kish (1 Samuel 9). The defeat of Haman serves as a sign that God favors the Israelites as opposed to the Amalekites.

The deliverance of the Israelites can be seen as a depiction of the work of God in Christ to redeem Israel from bondage (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 275). God's preservation of the Jews in Susa also preserves the line of the Christ. The periods of fasting recorded in Esther also indicate prayer, though it is not specifically mentioned. The work of God can be seen throughout, as he arranges events, just as in the coming of Jesus in the incarnation (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 276).

Sin and grace are seen clearly in God's working through the circumstances of the pagan court to graciously preserve his people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 276). There is no question about the sinful nature of the people or the gracious nature of God.

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Ezra and Nehemiah - a time of restoration

4/9/2024

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Tuesdays Are for the Old Testament
4/9/24

Lessing, R. Reed, & Steinmann, Andrew E. (2014). "Chapter Fourteen: Ezra and Nehemiah." In Prepare the Way of the Lord: An Introduction to the Old Testament. (pp. 243-266). St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. 

In introducing Ezra and Nehemiah, Lessing and Steinmann remark on the leadership and cooperative work shown in the books, rather than seeking t o view everything in terms of rebuilding a city and a temple (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 243).

Lessing and Steinmann identify four theories of authorship for the works. First, an early theory views Ezra as the author of these books and Chronicles (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 243). The writing in the three books is consistent, and the end of Chronicles matches the start of Ezra. However, Chronicles does seem to push beyond the likely age of Ezra, who would have been very old to see the latest of the family lines in Chronicles (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 244). Nehemiah continues a list of high priests continuing until about 370 BC, which would place the persons of Ezra and Nehemiah significantly over 100 years of age at the end of the events in the three works.

A second theory credits Ezra for the book with his name and Nehemiah for the book with his name (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 244). Again, Lessing and Steinmann consider the chronology too likely to exceed the lifespan of the respective authors.

A third theory, articulated in Germany in the 1830s, is that the Chronicler, a figure somewhat later than Ezra, wrote the works, which were later broken up (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 245). The theory is based on quotations from Chronicles in Ezra (or the other way around), as well as references in 1 Esdras. The assumption which governs this theory is that the apocryphal work is more reliable than the canonical. Additionally, though there are linguistic and stylistic similarities, these are also found in other post-exilic works. The theological emphases are similar, but not identical (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 246).

A fourth model, proposed by Cross, seems to Lessing and Steinmann as depending on speculative suppositions about the nature of the composition (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 246). They do not describe the Cross theory in any detail.

In recent decades the view that Ezra and Nehemiah were compiled by an unknown editor relying on source documents has emerged as a likely manner of composition (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 246). Lessing and Steinmann observe that the two books have normally been considered as one book, as they are still reckoned this way in the Jewish canon (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 247). This view of unity is normally accepted by the scholarly community as well. Lessing and Steinmann do note objections to the unity. Evidence of the concept of unity arises several centuries after the composition (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 248). The mention of the same characters in the same place at approximately the same time is not a strong indicator of the works being one. The two books also have differences in style, vocabulary, and ideology (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 248). The extensive use of source materials in the two works leaves little evidence of the identity of an author. Lessing and Steinmann conclude that the books deserve to be treated individually but as books which have points of connection.

As to the date of composition, Lessing and Steinmann place Nehemiah sometime after 336-331 BC, the reign of Darius III. Ezra could be dated any time after March 27, 457 BC, the last event in the book (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 249). Ezra references the first return of Jews from exile, based on a decree issued in 538 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 250). Steinmann proposes a return somewhat after the decree, in 530. Ezra (7:7) returns to Jerusalem in the seventh year of the reign of Artaxerxes. This is a challenging date, as there were three rulers named Artaxerxes (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 251). Since there is extrabiblical evidence of Nehemiah's return in 445, and it is known that he and Ezra were in Jerusalem at the same time, Ezra's return would be in the reign of Artaxerxes I, and in 448-445 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 251). Lessing and Steinmann discuss dating theories which place the events at another time, yet they find the theories lacking in one way or another. They conclude that Ezra most likely arrived in 458 BC, and that Nehemiah arrived in 445 BC (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 253).

From a literary standpoint, an important feature of Ezra and Nehemiah is the extensive use of a variety of sources (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 254). These source documents make up the vast majority of the text of the two books. Of additional interest is the use of documents in Aramaic rather than Hebrew (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 255).

Ezra 1-6 and 7-10 have parallel structures, each starting with a decree, then a movement to Jerusalem, work in Jerusalem, and a crisis overcome by God's servants (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 256). Lessing and Steinmann consider this to be a very careful arrangement.

Likewise, Nehemiah 1-6 and 7-13 are separate sections. In 1-6 the activity begins with the wall and moves toward the people's faith in God. In 7-13 the nation moves from the people's concerns back to the wall (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 257).

The worship of God's people in Jerusalem is a major theological theme (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 258). Ezra's focus is on the temple, while Nehemiah's is on the city. The re-establishment of historic worship is a major element.

Prayer is a prominent element in the books, with multiple examples of confession and intercession (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 258).

The re-establishment of Jerusalem is a third major theme (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 259). The security of Jerusalem after its desecration and destruction is part and parcel of the restoration of Israel into an eschatological kingdom (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 260).

Ezra and Nehemiah make at least 29 references to the Pentateuch. A strong image of the authority of Scripture is thus created (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 260). The writing is considered to be both the work of Moses and the work of God. There is, furthermore, an emphasis on the written nature of the Torah. This is an example of definitive, unchanging revelation (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 261).

Faithfulness in marriage is another key element in Ezra and Nehemiah. Lessing and Steinmann note the problems caused by intermarriage with the pagans around Judah. The intermarriages were not a problem per se, but would often draw people away from faithfulness to God (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 261). In Ezra and Nehemiah the first commandment takes precedence over the sixth, resulting in a need to end marriages involving pagans (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 262).

The idolatrous practices of other groups can lead God's people into sin. Therefore, we can see Ezra and Nehemiah as depicting sin through the lens of cooperation with pagans (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 262). God shows himself gracious by continually working for restoration of worship according to His will (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 262). God's restorative work is in clear view. he is the one who brings the Judeans back to Jerusalem, who sees that the temple is rebuilt, and who preserves a faithful people (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 263).

Lessing and Steinmann find "no direct messianic references" but do find a strong messianic hope (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 263). This is tied to the restoration of Jerusalem and God's new covenant (Jeremiah 31:27-40). The purification of the place and the people is linked to an eschatological and messianic hope (Lessing & Steinmann 2014, p. 264).

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