Category: Philosophy - Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry

Wrapping up Enthymemes

1/8/2016

Fridays are for Philosophy 1/8/16
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 26

Aristotle closes this book of his Art of Rhetoric by clarifying that Amplification and Depreciation are not classes of enthymemes. He also states that Refutative enthymemes fit in the same category as Constructive enthymemes. He will move next to deal with Style and Arrangement,having already covered invention.

Details, Details

1/1/2016

Fridays are for Philosophy 1/1/16
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 31, “Putting It All Together” pp. 149-152.

Wilson close this book with a reminder that the rhetorician must remember a great many details. Wilson strongly recommends that the confidence needed for public speaking be placed not in the speaker or his preparation, but in God (Wilson 2011, 149). A great deal of preparation must always go into speaking well, practicing the skill of pulling ethos, pathos, and logos together, practicing the mechanics, and being well prepared (Wilson 2011, 150-151).

Refuting Arguments

1/1/2016

Fridays are for Philosophy 1/1/16
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 25

Having introduced the genuine and apparent enthymemes, Aristotle now discusses how to refute them. “An argument may be refuted, either by a counter-syllogism or by bringing an objection” (Aristotle II.25, B. 1402a). A contrary syllogism may be constructed by using parallel but differing ideas. An objection can be made in several ways. Aristotle first discusses attacking the opponent’s statement. By this he means pointing out an exception to a universal statement or concept (Aristotle II.25 B. 1402b). It is also possible to show that the opposite of a universal conclusion is not universal. Aristotle calls this “an objection from a contrary statement” (Aristotle II.25, B. 1402b). He then identifies the parallel “objection from a like statement” (Aristotle II.25, B. 1402b). Here the speaker observes that a parallel universal statement may not be true, therefore the opponent’s universal may also not be true.

Aristotle reminds the reader that an enthymeme is based on probability, an example, an infallible sign, or an ordinary sign (Aristotle II.75, B. 1402b). An argument from probability can often be overturned. One from a fallible sign can always be refuted. An argument based on example is susceptible to a counter example. One from an infallible sign cannot be overcome unless it contains a logical fallacy (Aristotle II.25, B. 1403a).

Gestures and Eyes

12/25/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 12/25/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 30, “Eye Contact” pp. 145-147.

Wilson reminds the reader that eye contact is a very important gesture. The speaker’s role is to create in the audience a love for the material of the speech (Wilson 2011, 145). It is not a problem for the speaker to look at his notes. This is a valid activity. However, the contact with notes and material is like contact with the audience. It is intended to draw the content and the hearers together (Wilson 2011, 146).

Faulty Conclusions

12/25/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 12/25/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 24.

Aristotle shows that there are enthymemes which are not genuine. It is quite possible to make a conclusive statement which is not based on any evidence given (Aristotle II.24, B. 1401a). Words may also be redefined so as to assert a false conclusion (Aristotle II.24, B. 1401a). It is also possible to assert of a whole what is true of its parts. This is another fallacy, as a whole and its parts might not be identical (Aristotle II.24, B. 1401a). Another common false argument is accomplished, “if the prosecutor goes into a passion, he produces an impression of the defendant’s guilt (Aristotle II.24, B. 401b). Again, it is possible to attempt to generalize from one event, an accident, a consequence, or an alleged but not real cause (Aristotle II.24, B. 1401b). Avoiding mention of time or situation may serve to adduce a false conclusion (Aristotle II.24, B. 1402a).

Prove It Or Disprove It!

12/18/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 12/18/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 23.

Aristotle now begins to discuss ways of proving or disproving an argument. He begins by pointing out that opposites must be truly opposites for a proof to work. For example, “Temperence is beneficial; for licentiousness is hurtful” (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1397a). If in fact one part of the statement is false, the other likely is as well. A second proof would be by means of considering all possible meanings of key words. Because of semantic range, some arguments may be overturned. There are also some situations in which an action may not be appropriate or one can be shown to be appropriate based on the other. For instance, if it is not inappropriate for one person to pay taxes, it is all right to collect the taxes (Aristotle 2:23, B. 1397b). An a fortiori argument says that if the less likely condition is true the more likely one will be also (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1397b). Some arguments can work based on time. If an action was allowed at one time it may be expected at another time (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1398a). In a debate, if it is possible to get the opponent to admit to what he says is disallowed in you it is normally positive (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1398a). Defining terms carefully can lead to a successful argument based on the defined terms (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1398a). An inductive argument may also indicate that conditions were right for a certain argument (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1398b). An argument from precedent is often viable (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1399a). Refutation or proof of separate parts of an argument is also quite effective (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1399a). Consequences of an action may be used to indicate whether it is wise or not. Related to this idea, showing that similar results come from sinister causes is often effective (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1399b). Aristotle also endorses arguments based on motives, rather than fact (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1399b). Argument based on incredible events or contradictions may be easily refuted (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1400a). Comparing actions or past history often prove useful in argumentation (Aristotle 2.23, B. 1400b).

Talking with your Whole Body

12/18/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 12/18/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 29, “Stance and Gestures” pp. 141-144.

Wilson points out that not only the voice is the speaking instrument. It is, in fact, the whole body in the setting (Wilson 2011, 141). Wilson advises little foot motion during a speech, maintaining a solid stance. In case of motion, the speaker must control the situation, including knowledge of information (Wilson 2011, 142). Being able to see any needed notes or cues is important, as is comfort with all the surroundings. Use of gestures may seem natural or unnatural. Careful forethought is necessary (Wilson 2011, 143).

Elements of Elocution

12/11/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 12/11/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 28, “Elocution” pp. 137-139.

Wilson now reminds the reader that “elocution is the art of speaking distinctly, clearly, and well with regard to the pronunciation and relations of your words” (Wilson 2011, 137). Considering the voice as a musical instrument, how is the speech best performed? Wilson divides the delivery into tone “quality, force, pitch, movement, stress, and intervals” (Wilson 2011, 137). Consideration of each qualitative aspect can make a speech achieve its maximum effect.

What's an Enthymeme?

12/11/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 12/11/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 22.

After having spent considerable time working with different elements of an argument, Aristotle begins to discuss Enthymemes, previously introduced as syllogisms. Aristotle urges the speaker to avoid making obscure arguments. Simplicity is almost always more accepted (Aristotle II.22, B. 1395b). “The first thing we have to remember is this. Whether our argument concerns public affairs or some other subject, we must know some, if not all, of the facts about the subject on which we are to speak and argue” (Aristotle II.22, B. 1396a). Facts which are specific to a case are superior to generalizations.

Aristotle then moves into classes of enthymemes, which he considers first to be either those which prove or those which disprove a proposition (Aristotle II.22, B. 1396b). “The demonstrative enthymeme is formed by the conjunction of compatible propositions; the refutative, by the conjunction of incompatible propositions” (Aristotle II.22, B. 1396b).

What Is a Maxim?

12/4/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 12/4/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 21.

Aristotle now considers Maxims. A maxim is a general statement about practical conduct. In general, the premise in an enthymeme is a maxim (Aristotle II.21, B. 1394a). Aristotle identifies four types of maxims. Some need a supplement as proof and some do not. Some which have a supplement are part of an enthymeme (Aristotle II.21, B. 1394b). “The use of Maxims is appropriate only to elderly men, and in handling subjects in which the speaker is experienced (Aristotle II.21, B. 1395a).

Good Reading Leads to Good Writing

12/4/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 12/4/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 27, “Style and Reading” pp. 133-136.

Wilson reminds the reader that we learn by imitation. Since this is the case, we do well to read excellent examples (Wilson 2011, 133). He illustrates with quotations from H.L. Mencken, C.S. Lewis, J.R.R. Tolkein, P.J. O’Rourke, Ambrose Bierce, and G.K. Chesterton (Wilson 2011, 133-135). Wilson’s goal is to encourage the reader to dissect good writing, play with the words and patterns, and learn by imitation.

Indirect Information

11/27/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 11/27/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 26, “Indirect Information.” pp. 129-131

In this lesson Wilson continues to remind the reader of the importance of metaphor found in the world. Wilson sees words as full of “metaphorical freight” (Wilson 2011, 129). He then uses the hypostatic union of God and man in Christ to say that we “search the world for indicators of ultimate meaning” (Ibid.). His conclusion is that our most fruitful use of language and theology is to allow the Bible to speak vividly. As we read behind the actions to the importance of those actions we find underlying and ultimate meaning. As a rhetorician apparently attempting to force the reader to make inferences, Wilson does not state his conclusion. He merely says, “Let your speech be gravid with metaphor” (Ibid., 131).

For Instance...

11/27/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 11/27/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 20.

Aristotle here discusses the two main types of argument which are applied to all rhetoric. They are “example” and “enthymeme”, which includes “maxim” (Aristotle II.20, B 1393a). An argument by example is based on inductive reasoning. The reasoning comes from examples either of real or invented “facts” (Aristotle II.20, B 1393a). The speaker tells the story from the past and urges action consistent with the action needed in the past. It is perfectly valid to make a parallel between an illustration and a real, current situation (Aristotle II.20, B 1393b). Fables work well for these parallels, but “it is more valuable for the political speaker to supply them by quoting what has actually happened, since in most respects the future will be like what the past has been” (Aristotle II.20, B 1394a). Aristotle urges use of Enthymeme, but provision of additional evidence using these examples.

Style as Central to Communication

11/20/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 11/20/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 25, “Metaphor and Style.” pp. 123-128

Wilson moves from his discussion of poetic expression to the idea of style. The style of the author or speaker is central to the communication. It is not an extra accessory. Furthermore, the style of the speaker is aimed at capturing an overarching metaphor (Wilson 2011, 123). Because all of creation is expressed to us as an expression of God, it all speaks somehow about God. Likewise our words eventually speak about us. Wilson therefore urges speakers that the content of their speech should ultimately be God’s revelation (Ibid., 124). Wilson, as a consistent Calvinist, urges his students to view their role in the world as that of taking dominion over what they have been given, whether works or materials (Ibid., 127). Therefore the work of the orator is to take words and therefore thoughts into submission, using them to show the centrality of the presence of God in all of life.

Either Possible or Impossible, Never Both

11/20/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 11/20/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 19.

Aristotle writes about the relation of that which is possible and that which is impossible. He first reminds the reader “that if it is possible for one of a pair of contraries to be or happen, then it is possible for the other (Aristotle II.19, B 1392a). For example, if someone can be cured he can become il. If a harder thing is possible, so is the easier. If a beautiful house can be built, a house in general can be built. If an outcome is possible, so is its cause. Aristotle also looks at matters of “past fact” (Aristotle II.19, B 1392b). Again considering two related events, if the less likely has occurred, it is likely that the more likely has also. If an outcome usually happens, it is likely to have happened in the past. To determine future fact we use the same process (Aristotle II.19, B 1393a). If there is both desire and ability to do something it will be done. If it is normal for something to happen now and in the past, it is likely in the future.

What's Your Purpose?

11/13/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 11/13/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 18.

“The use of persuasive speech is to lead to decisions” (Aristotle II.18, B 1391b. It may be applied to individuals, groups, or propositions. In ceremonial speeches also the speaker intends the audience to decide something. The arguments or oratory are generally related to possibility of a situation or size, scope, or importance. Arguments may also be structured in enthymeme or by examples (Aristotle II.18, B 1391b).

Metric Speech Is Often Good!

11/13/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 11/13/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 24, “Still More Rhythm of Words.” pp. 119-121

Wilson continues his foray into poetic meter and rhythm, urging the reader to find and use poetic elements in prose. The most common forms in English are the iamb (._ ._ ._ ._) and the trochee (_._._._.) (Wilson 2011, 119). He also reminds the reader of the anapest (.._ .._ .._ .._ ) and the dactyl (_.. _.. _.. _..). Then he illustrates how a sentence with rhythm can be especially memorable. We close these notes with one example from p. 120.

Unmetered speech - Talk about it. Try to decide maybe.
Metered speech - Talk about the issue first, and then perhaps you might decide.

Character and Power

11/6/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 11/6/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 17.

What type of character does power produce? Aristotle says it is fairly obvious. “Those in power are more ambitious and more manly in character than the wealthy, because they aspire to do the great deeds that their power permits them to do” (Aristotle II.17, B 1391a). People in positions of authority realize their responsibility. “They are dignified rather than arrogant” (Aristotle II.17, B 1391a). Aristotle notes that wealth and good fortune tend to overlap with having power.

Rhythm of Words

11/6/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 11/6/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 23, “The Rhythm of Words: 2.” pp. 115-118

After a foray into poetry writing, Wilson suggests that prose also has meter. The meter of prose, however, is much more free. Just as words have meter, Wilson affirms that thoughts have meter. The thoughts draw the reader or listener through an argument while the words draw the reader through the expressions of the argument. Wilson illustrates how various ways of expressing the same idea may fit different situations (Wilson 2011, 116). In a larger speech event, the writer will use rhythm and meter, spee, hesitation, and fluidity at the best times to accomplish their purposes (Ibid., 117).

Poetic Rhythm

10/30/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 10/30/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 22, “The Rhythm of Words: 1.” pp. 107-114

In this lesson Wilson urges the reader to pay attention to the cadence and sounds of words, as well as their arrangement. He begins by seeking out a definition of poetry (Wilson 2011, 107). After quoting several authors, Wilson settles on “the metrical use of words and figures in imaginative and concentrated form” (Ibid., 108). To improve ability with words and rhythm, Wilson suggests studying poetic meters. He views writing poetry as a powerful exercise in learning to write prose.

English poetry is based primarily on stressed and unstressed syllables. A repetitive stress pattern creates a poetic “foot.” The poetic feet have various patterns which are named (ibid., 108). Wilson illustrates these patterns. using a _ for a stressed syllable and a . for an unstressed one, we can make these patterns (Ibid. 110).

Iambic ._ ._ ._ ._
Trochaic _. _. _. _.
Anapestic .._ .._ .._ .._
Dactylic _.. _.. _.. _..

Poetic lines are then identified by how many feet they have, such as a trochaic tetrameter _._._._.

Various arrangements of rhyme may also exist, with the last sounds of each line or every other line matching as the most common patterns. Wilson details the patterns found in sonnets and suggests practice with words and ideas via writing orderly poetry (Ibid., 112).

Wealth and Character

10/30/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 10/30/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 16.

Aristotle addresses character issues among the wealthy. “Wealthy men are insolent and arrogant; their possession of wealth affects their understanding; they feel as if they had every good thing that exists; wealth becomes a sort of standard value for everything else, and therefore they imagine there is nothing it cannot buy” (II.16, B 1391a). Aristotle sees wealthy people as luxurious, ostentatious, and vulgar. Those who have recently become rich show these characteristics in a greater degree than those accustomed to wealth.

Invention and Arrangement

10/23/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 10/23/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 21, “Invention and Arrangement.” pp. 101-105

Wilson reminds the reader that in invention a speaker identifies ideas but in arrangement the speaker selects the ideas to use and puts them in order. The speaker tries to identify the need of the audience and speak to it (Wilson 2011, 101). In general, a speaking opportunity will follow a predictable pattern. First, an exordium, the introduction appropriate to the occasion (Ibid.). Next, a naratio may be necessary. This lays out the important details of the case. It is not the argument but lays out the facts (Ibid., 102). Next you may wish to use a partitio, describing various points of view as a road map for the argument (Ibid., 103). The propositio comes next. This is the thesis of your argument, using information the audience now knows. Fifth comes the confirmatio and refutatio in which the propositio is defended and opposing points of view are refuted (Ibid.). Finally, the peroratio concludes the argument, damages the ethos of the opponents, and creates sympathy for the speaker’s point of view (Ibid., 104).

Advantages of Birth

10/23/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 10/23/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 15.

In this very short transitional chapter Aristotle introduces “those Gifts of Fortune by which human character is affected” (II.15, B 1390b). Here he discusses the gift of good birth. People who are well born tend to be ambitious. It is not synonymous with being noble, which is “being true to the family nature” (II.15, B 1390b). The person who is well born may or may not turn out well, but is more likely to do so than the average.

Am I in My Prime?

10/16/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 10/16/15
Aristotle, and W. Rhys Roberts. Rhetoric. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004. Kindle Electronic Edition.
Book II, chapter 14

Aristotle has discussed the temperaments of the young and the old. He now observes that men in their prime are “free from the extremes of either” the young or the old (II.14 B 1390a). They tend to be confident rather than rash or timid. They trust where trust is due. Their judgment is reasoned and careful. “To put it generally, all the valuable qualities that youth and age divide between them are united in the prime of life, while all their excesses or defects are replaced by moderation and fitness” (II.14, B 1390a). Aristotle considers that men are in their prime bodily from age 30-35 and in their minds about ages 30-49.

Refutations - Overturning Arguments

10/16/2015

Fridays are for Philosophy 10/16/15
Wilson, Douglas, and Nathan D. Wilson. The Rhetoric Companion: A Student's Guide to Power in Persuasion. Moscow, Idaho: Canon, 2011.
Lesson 20, “Invention, Stasis, and the Confirmation and Refutatio” pp. 97-99.

Wilson, counter to the typical order of the progymnasmata, places confirmatio prior to refutatio. This may be warranted depending on the occasion of a speech. “The confirmation is where the speaker assembles the pieces. The refutatio is where he tries to keep his worthy adversary from being able to disassemble the pieces” (Wilson 2011, 97). While it might be tempting to either ignore one’s opponent’s actual arguments or to catalog and address each one, Wilson suggests finding the strategically important point. “A point is strategic when it meets two criteria: being both decisive and feasible. In military terms, a point is decisive when, if captured, the enemy’s cause is lost. It is feasible if you can do it” (Wilson 2011, 97). In all argumentation we must remember the appeal to ethos, not allowing ourselves to seem inhuman and therefore easily attacked (Wilson 2011, 98). In short, find the absolutely critical point of an opponent’s argument which can be overcome. You then win the point.