Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry
  • Home
  • Calendar
  • Events
  • Blog
  • Recording Archives
  • Resources
    • Bible Study - Matthew's Gospel
    • Bible Study - John's Gospel
    • Bible Study - Ephesians
    • Greek Tutorials
  • About
    • About Wittenberg CoMo
    • Support Us
    • Contact Us
  • Position Papers
  • Sandbox

Identifying Oral Sources of Written Works . . .

12/13/2019

0 Comments

 
Culley, Robert. “Oral Tradition and Biblical Studies.” Oral Tradition 1:1 (1986), 30-65.

Culley focuses his review of the study of oral tradition and biblical studies by breaking it into three stages: first, up to the early 20th century, second, to about 1960, and third, up to the time of his writing (Culley 1986, 30). He observes that the term “biblical studies” is somewhat ambiguous because scholarship is often divided into Old Testament and New Testament studies. He also observes that the study of oral tradition as it overlaps with biblical studies is, by and large, a 20th century study (Culley 1986, 31). The study is complicated by the fact that we have very little definitive information about specifically how the biblical texts came to be written in their current form.

Culley first considers scholarship “up to the time of [Hermann] Gunkel (d. 1932)” (Culley 1986, 32). Specific debate about oral traditions as well as written source materials which could be used in the composition of biblical texts arose in the late 18th century, specifically in the work of Johann Gottfried Herder and Johann Christoph Nachtigal. About 100 years later, the work of Julius Wellhausen and Hermann Gunkel draws the attention of Culley (Culley 1986, 32). Wellhausen, best known for his postulation of the J, E, D, and P sources for the Pentateuch, assumed oral (and unreliable) sources for the stories gathered into the biblical texts (Culley 1986, 33). Gunkel took the texts to have a strong relationship to “folk literature” and to fit genres formed in an oral tradition. Culley finds Gunkel to have a relatively high opinion about accuracy of oral transmission, yet observes that he considered shorter narrative to be, by definition, older. He considered written transmission to be the only appropriate means of transmitting history (Culley 1986, 34). 

Culley next considers developments in scholarship up to the early sixties (Culley 1986, 35). He notes that relatively little scholarship emerged from Germany during the period, however, the work of Martin Noth recognized oral legends at the heart of aetiological stories. Noth frequently treated oral and written traditions as bearing equal weight (Culley 1986, 36). In Scandinavia, studies focused not only on oral tradition but also on the role of rites and sacral kings in Israel. Oral tradition was normally considered relatively accurate. Nyberg, in particular, saw the oral tradition as authoritative and the use of written texts primarily as props for memory (Culley 1986, 37). Other Scandinavian scholars considered that the methods of Nyberg and Gunkel needed to interact with one another. Particularly Culley mentions Sigmund Mowinckel, who considered writing to be essential to unchanging traditions and G. Widengren, who considered that Arabic poetry was not as much an oral creation as did Nyberg (Culley 1986, 38). This led Widengren to propose a robust written tradition in the Hebrew literature. The scholarly literature in North America at the time was not as extensive as that of Germany and Scandinavia (Culley 1986, 39). Culley does discuss William Foxewell Allbright and his view that oral and written traditions could coexist, with oral transmission continuing in cases of written literature which is disseminated orally (Culley 1986, 40).

Culley sees 1963 as the time of a major ground-shift in studies of oral tradition and the Old Testament (Culley 1986, 41). Much of this was related to an interest in Serbo-Croatian oral poetry as well as more archaic English classics. Culley’s working thesis at that point was that there were particular, often repetitive, patterns, which could be cataloged and identified in texts which depended heavily on orality.

Culley further considers attempts, beginning in the 1960s, to catalog the characteristics of Hebrew poetry. Most scholars agreed that Hebrew poetry is related in some ways to pairs of synonyms in different lines and to repeated phrases in different lines (Culley 1986, 42). The discussion is made more challenging because Hebrew does not make very clear distinctions between poetry and prose. Culley’s own work with biblical Psalms in 1963 and onward found stock phrases in traditional poetry from numerous cultures (Culley 1986, 43). The research continued into the 1970s as some scholars attempted to treat repetition of ideas, rather than repetition of phrases, as the structural unifying factor in Hebrew poetry (Culley 1986, 44). Oral formulas as a feature of composition was a popular field of study, especially among students of Frank Cross ad Harvard in the late 1960s. These students tended to find patterns which suggested an origin of Hebrew poetry in oral tradition.

One of the difficulties in the field, stated purposefully or not by Culley, is identification of formulae which would imply an oral origin. Culley’s statement of this may be telling of the discipline as a whole. “In selecting formulaic phrases, Urbock was less restrictive than I was, not demanding as great a measure of semantic identity” (Culley 1986, 45). An assessment of parallelism in ideas would predictably be highly subjective, and could be interpreted quite freely. This is affirmed by the fact that several scholars, through the 1970s and up to 1980, developed alternative theories about oral and written origins of precisely the same works, based on data gathered and analyzed in earlier years (Culley 1986, 46).

Culley next considers biblical Hebrew prose, beginning with the work of David Gunn, who, in the 1970s, produced articles analyzing prose. “In his approach to the biblical text he makes a distinction between what he calls traditional material, conventional for the author and his audience, and oral traditional material, where the mode of composition of the conventional material can be specified as oral” (Culley 1986, 47). Culley identifies the non-oral material as more elaborate motifs, and the oral material as short patterns. While this is an interesting analysis, it still does not provide definitive measures to identify oral and written sources. Culley goes on to describe his work with a blend of stable tradition and narrative variety (Culley 1986, 48). Other studies likewise apply tools to the biblical narratives, frequently using the methods applied to folklore, but without significant success in distinguishing among oral and written source material (Culley 1986, 49). This difficulty may have moved authors such as John Van Seters to seek written roots for virtually all texts (Culley 1986, 49-50).

Culley recognizes that interdisciplinary studies may be valuable, though they bear their own challenges. However, he does survey the work of two anthropologists, Robert R. Wilson and Burke O. Long (Culley 1986, 51). Both are cautious in their approach and note features such as repetition and variation in genealogical lists as signs of orality (Culley 1986, 52). The overall consensus, as observed by Culley, is that oral tradition is of questionable usefulness in reconstructing history. We simply know little about how it has been transmitted.

The New Testament has not been considered in terms of oral tradition as much as the Old Testament. However, Culley notes that Bultmann’s work with form criticism acknowledges both oral and written roots. “However . . . he makes the claim that one cannot distinguish in the end between oral and written traditions since the written material displays no specifically literary character” (Culley 1986, 53). Others, such as Birger Gerhardsson, in 1961, suggested that much of the New Testament was passed on orally, just as were many of the traditions of Judaism (Culley 1986, 53). Culley acknowledges that Gerhardsson’s work has been sharply critiqued, but still has redeeming characteristics. As we would expect, studies of orality and the New Testament have focused on the move from some sort of spoken tradition to a written manuscript. There is considerable difficulty in distinghishing the nature of oral and written sources which we don’t posssess (Culley 1986, 54).

In the late 1970s, work which may prove fruitful began as the nature of orality and textuality in the New Testament was studied. Of note to me, Culley mentions the work of Werner H. Kelber, with an article on oral tradition in 1979, followed by The Oral and the Written Gospel (1983), dealing with the interaction between oral and written texts (Culley 1986, 55).

In his concluding remarks, Culley restates the difficulties inherent in assessing oral roots of a written text, but does note there are numerous scholars who are beginning to sort out characteristics of orality and textuality. The interactions of oral and written sources can be a valuable means of understanding the nature and implications of many pieces of literature.

​
0 Comments

    ​Help Fuel This Ministry by Clicking Here!

    All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!
    Please Note: The opinions presented in blog posts are not necessarily those of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry. Frequently we report on contrary views, often without comment. Please chime in on the discussion.

    About Throwing Inkwells

    When Martin Luther was dealing with struggles in his life he once saw what appeared to be an angelic being. Not trusting that he was going to be informed by someone other than the God revealed in Scripture, he took the appearance to be untrustworthy and hurled his inkwell at it. The chipped place in the plaster wall is still visible at the Wartburg Castle, though apparently the ink stain on the wall has been refreshed periodically by the caretaker.

    Blog Feeds

    RSS Feed

    Want to keep up with what's happening at Wittenberg Door? Subscribe to our mailing list!

    Categories

    All
    1 Chronicles
    1 Corinthians
    1 John
    1 Kings
    1 Peter
    1 Samuel
    1 Thessalonians
    1 Timothy
    2019-02-feb
    2 Chronicles
    2 Corinthians
    2-john
    2 Kings
    2 Peter
    2 Samuel
    2 Thessalonians
    2 Timothy
    3-john
    Abortion
    Academic-success
    Acts
    Advent 1
    Advent-1-a
    Advent-1b
    Advent-1c
    Advent 2
    Advent-2-a
    Advent-2b
    Advent-2c
    Advent 3
    Advent-3-a
    Advent-3b
    Advent-3c
    Advent 4
    Advent-4-a
    Advent-4b
    Advent-4c
    Akagi 2016
    Aland 1961
    Alesso-2009
    Alexander 1999
    Allegory
    Allitt-2010
    All Saints' Day
    Alon 1996
    Amos
    Anaphora
    Anointing
    Antioch
    Anunciation
    Apollinaris Of Hierapolis
    Apologetics
    Apostles' Creed
    Apostolical Constitutions
    Apostolic Fathers
    Applied Theology
    Aristides Of Athens
    Aristotle
    Aryeh 2021
    Ascension Day
    Ash Wednesday
    Athenagoras Of Athens
    Audet 1996
    Augustine
    Bakker-1993
    Balabanski-1997
    Bammel-1996
    Baptism
    Baptism-of-christ
    Baptism-of-the-lord-b
    Bardy-1938
    Baron-2019
    Baron-maponya-2020
    Bauckham-1984
    Bauckham-2006
    Bauckham-2007
    Beale-1984
    Belief
    Belonging
    Benamos-1999
    Betz-1996
    Biesenthal-1893
    Bigg-1904
    Bigg-1905
    Blogcation
    Blomberg-1984
    Boehme2010
    Botha-1967
    Botha-1993
    Botha-2013
    Braaten-2007
    Bradshaw 2002
    Bruce-1988
    Bruce-1988
    Bryennios
    Butler-1960
    Caneday-2017
    Canonicity
    Capon-1998
    Capon1998
    Carr-2010
    Carson-1991
    Carson-moo-2005
    Catechesis
    Catholicism
    Cerfaux-1959
    Chilton-1984
    Chrismation
    Christmas-1b
    Christmas-1c
    Christmas-dawn
    Christmas-day
    Christmas Eve
    Christmas Midnight
    Chronicles
    Church History
    Church Order
    Circumcision And Naming Of Christ
    Cody 1995
    Colossians
    Conditions
    Confession Of Peter
    Confessions
    Connolly 1932
    Connolly 1933
    Connolly 1934
    Constantine
    Constanza-2013
    Cooper & Lioy 2018
    Costa 2021
    Court 1981
    Creeds
    Culley 1986
    Cyprian
    Daly 1978
    Daniel
    Danielou 1956
    Davids 1984
    Davis 1995
    DeHalleux 1996
    Dehandschutter 1995
    Denominations
    Deuteronomy
    Didache
    Diversity
    Divine Fellowship
    Dix 1933
    Dix-2005
    Dix2005
    Doane 1994
    Draper
    Draper 1984
    Draper 1989
    Draper 1995
    Draper-1996
    Draper-1997
    Draper-2000
    Draper 2005
    Draper-2006
    Draper 2008
    Dube 2016
    Due 2003
    Early Christian Functionaries
    Easter-2
    Easter-2a
    Easter2b
    Easter-2c
    Easter-3
    Easter-3a
    Easter-3b
    Easter-3c
    Easter-4
    Easter-4a
    Easter-4b
    Easter-4c
    Easter-5
    Easter-5a
    Easter-5b
    Easter-6
    Easter-6a
    Easter-6b
    Easter-6c
    Easter-7
    Easter-7a
    Easter-7b
    Easter-7c
    Easter-b
    Easter-day
    Easter-monday
    Easter-sunday-a
    Easter-sunday-c
    Easter-sunrise
    Easter-tuesday
    Easter-wednesday
    Ecclesiastes
    Eleutheria2014
    Elman-1999
    Ephesians
    Epiphany
    Epiphany-1c
    Epiphany-2-a
    Epiphany-2c
    Epiphany-3-a
    Epiphany-3b
    Epiphany-3c
    Epiphany-4-a
    Epiphany-4b
    Epiphany-4c
    Epiphany-5-a
    Epiphany-5b
    Epiphany-5c
    Epiphany-6-a
    Epiphany-6c
    Epiphany-7-a
    Epiphany-c
    Epistle Of Barnabas
    Epistles
    Eschatology
    Esther
    Ethics
    Eucharist
    Evangelism
    Eve-of-the-circumcision-of-christ
    Exodus
    Exodus-20
    Experiential Reading
    Eybers 1975
    Ezekiel
    Ezra
    Fagerberg-1988
    Fagerberg1988
    Fall Of Jerusalem
    Farrell-1987
    Flew-2007
    Flusser-1996
    Forde-2007
    Fraade-1999
    France-2007
    Galatians
    Garrow 2004
    Gender
    Genesis
    Gero 1977
    Gibbins 1935
    Gibbs 2006
    Gibbs 2010
    Gibbs 2018
    Glover-1958
    Goga & Popa 2019
    Gonzalez-2010
    Good-friday
    Gospels
    Greek
    Grosvener-schaff-1885
    Grosvenor-1884
    Guardian-of-jesus
    Habakkuk
    Haggai
    Hagner 1984
    Harnack-1884
    Harrington 2008
    Harris 1887
    Harris 1984
    Hartin 2008
    Hasitschka 2008
    Hearon 2004
    Hearon 2010
    Hebrews
    Heilmann 2018
    Henderson-1992
    Henderson1992
    Henderson 1995
    Hezser 2010
    History
    Hoffman-1986
    Holy Cross Day
    Holy-innocents
    Holy-saturday
    Horsley 2010
    Hosea
    Hutchens2013
    Hymes-1994
    Ignatius Of Antioch
    Incarnation
    Infertility
    Isaiah
    Jaffee-1999
    James
    James Of Jerusalem
    James The Elder
    Jefford 1989
    Jefford 1995
    Jefford 2005
    Jefford 2019
    Jeffreys-1986
    Jeremiah
    Jerome
    Jesus
    Jewish Christianity
    Job
    Joel
    John
    Jonah
    Jones & Mirecki 1995
    Joseph
    Joshua
    Judaism
    Jude
    Judges
    Julian The Apostate
    Jungmann-1959
    Justinian
    Justin Martyr
    Kelber-1987
    Kelber-1995
    Kelber 2002
    Kelber 2010
    Kelber & Sanders 2010
    Kelly 1978
    Kevil
    Kings
    Kleinig-2013
    Kloppenborg 1979
    Kloppenborg 1995
    Kloppenborg 2005
    Kloppenborg 2008
    Koch2010
    Kok 2015
    Kolb-2000
    Kolb2000
    Kolb-arand-2008
    Kolbarand2008
    Konradt 2008
    Koukl 2019
    Kurekchomycz2009
    Lake 1905
    Lamentations
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-a
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-b
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-c
    Last Supper
    LaVerdiere 1996
    Law
    Layton 1968
    Lectionary
    Lent-1
    Lent-1-a
    Lent-1b
    Lent-1c
    Lent-2
    Lent-2-a
    Lent-2b
    Lent-2c
    Lent-3
    Lent-3-a
    Lent-3b
    Lent-3c
    Lent-4
    Lent-4-a
    Lent-4b
    Lent-4c
    Lent-5
    Lent-5-a
    Lent-5b
    Lent-5c
    Lessing-2014
    Lessing2014
    Lessing & Steinmann 2014
    Leviticus
    LGBTQ
    Lincoln-1885
    Lindemann 1997
    Literacy
    Literary Character
    Liturgy
    Livesey 2012
    Long-2009
    Lord-1986
    Lord-1987
    Lord's Prayer
    Love
    Luke
    Luther
    Lutheran Confessions
    Lutheran Distinctives
    Maas-2014
    Maccoull-1999
    Maier-1984
    Malachi
    Manuscripts
    Marcion
    Mark
    Marty-2016
    Martyrdom-of-john-the-baptist
    Martyrs
    Mary-magdalene
    Mary-mother-of-our-lord
    Mason-1998
    Massaux-1993-1950
    Matthew
    Matthias
    Mazza-1995
    Mazza-1996
    Mazza-1999
    Mbamalu-2014
    Mcdonald-1980
    Mcdonnell-montague-1991
    Mckean-2003
    Mcknight-2014
    Micah
    Middleton-1935
    Milavec-1995
    Milavec-2003
    Milavec-2005
    Milavec2012
    Miller-2019
    Missional
    Mitch-2010
    Mitchell-1995
    Molina-evers-1998
    Monasticism
    Monday-in-holy-week
    Montenyohl-1993
    Morris-1992
    Motyer-1993
    Mueller-2006
    Muilenburg-1929
    Music
    Nahum
    Nehemiah
    Neufeld-1999
    Newsletter
    New Testament
    New-testament
    Niditch-1995
    Niditch-2003
    Niebuhr-1956
    Niederwimmer-1982
    Niederwimmer-1995
    Niederwimmer-1996
    Niederwimmer 1998
    Numbers
    Oaths
    Obadiah
    Old Testament
    Old-testament
    Olsen-1986
    Ong-1987
    Ong-1988
    Ong-1995
    Oralit
    Orality
    Ordination
    Orphan-hosting
    Osborne-2002
    Osborne-2013
    Overman-2008
    Ozment-1980
    Ozment1980
    Painter-2008
    Palm-sunday
    Palm-sunday-a
    Palm-sunday-c
    Pardee-1995
    Pardee-2012
    Parks-1986
    Passionb
    Pastoral-office
    Pastors
    Patterson-1995
    Paul
    Pearce-1993
    Pentateuch
    Pentecost-10a
    Pentecost-10b
    Pentecost-10c
    Pentecost-11a
    Pentecost-11b
    Pentecost-11c
    Pentecost-12a
    Pentecost-12b
    Pentecost-12c
    Pentecost-13a
    Pentecost-13b
    Pentecost-13c
    Pentecost13c
    Pentecost-14a
    Pentecost-14b
    Pentecost14c
    Pentecost-15
    Pentecost-15a
    Pentecost-15b
    Pentecost15c
    Pentecost-16
    Pentecost-16a
    Pentecost-16b
    Pentecost-16c
    Pentecost-17a
    Pentecost-17b
    Pentecost-17c
    Pentecost-18a
    Pentecost-18b
    Pentecost-18-c
    Pentecost-19a
    Pentecost-19b
    Pentecost-19-c
    Pentecost-1a
    Pentecost-20a
    Pentecost-20b
    Pentecost-20-c
    Pentecost-21a
    Pentecost-21b
    Pentecost-21-c
    Pentecost-22a
    Pentecost-22b
    Pentecost-22-c
    Pentecost-23a
    Pentecost-23b
    Pentecost-23-c
    Pentecost-24a
    Pentecost-24b
    Pentecost-24-c
    Pentecost-25b
    Pentecost-25-c
    Pentecost-26b
    Pentecost-26-c
    Pentecost-2a
    Pentecost-2b
    Pentecost-2c
    Pentecost-3a
    Pentecost-3b
    Pentecost-3c
    Pentecost-4a
    Pentecost-4b
    Pentecost-4c
    Pentecost-5a
    Pentecost-5b
    Pentecost-5c
    Pentecost-6a
    Pentecost-6b
    Pentecost-6c
    Pentecost-7a
    Pentecost-7b
    Pentecost-7c
    Pentecost-8a
    Pentecost-8b
    Pentecost-8c
    Pentecost-9a
    Pentecost-9b
    Pentecost-9c
    Pentecost-b
    Pentecost-c
    Pentecost-eve
    Pentecost-monday
    Pentecost-sunday
    Pentecost-tuesday
    Petersen-1994
    Peterson-2010
    Peterson2010
    Philemon
    Philippians
    Philosophy
    Picirilli-1988
    Pick-1908
    Pieper-1924
    Pieper1924
    Pieper-1968
    Piper-1947
    Pluralism
    Pope Leo I
    Post-70
    Powell-2000
    Prayer
    Preaching
    Presentation-of-our-lord
    Proctor-2019
    Proper19c
    Proper20c
    Proper-21c
    Proper-22c
    Proper-23c
    Proper-24c
    Proper-25c
    Proper-26c
    Proper-27c
    Proper-28c
    Prophecy
    Prophets
    Proverbs
    Psalm
    Psalms
    Purity
    Quinquagesima
    Quintilian
    Rabbinic-character
    Real-presence
    Receptivity
    Reed-1995
    Reformation
    Reformation-day
    Reinhartz-2018
    Reproof
    Repschinski-2008
    Resurrection
    Revelation
    Rhetoric
    Rhoads-2010
    Richardson-gooch-1984
    Riggs-1995
    Ritual-meal
    Romans
    Romeny-2005
    Rordorf-1996
    Rosenberg-1986
    Rosenberg-1987
    Rosenfeldlevene2012
    Rouwhorst-2005
    Rueger-2016
    Russo-1994
    Ruth
    Sacrament
    Sacrifice
    Saenger-1999
    Sailhamer-1992
    Sailhamer1992
    Sale-1996
    Samuel
    Scaer-2004
    Scaer2004
    Schaff-1886
    Schaff-1888
    Schaff-1889
    Schaff 2014
    Schaff2014
    Schollgen
    Schroter-2008
    Schwarz-2005
    Scriptural-usage
    Seeliger-1996
    Senn-1997
    Septuagesima
    Sermon
    Sexagesima
    Sim-2008
    Simon-and-jude
    Smith-2009
    Smith-2018
    Sommerville-2006
    Song-of-songs
    Songofsongs
    St-andrew
    Stark 1997
    St-barnabas
    St-bartholomew
    Stewart-Sykes 2008
    St-john
    St-john-the-baptist
    St-luke
    St-mark
    St-matthew
    St-matthias
    St-michael-and-all-angels
    St-paul
    St-peter-and-paul
    St Philip And St James
    Strawbridge 2017
    St. Stephen
    St. Thomas
    St. Titus
    Sunday Of The Passion
    Svartvik 2008
    Syreeni 2005
    Syria
    Tatian
    Taylor 1888
    TDNT
    Teaching
    Telfer 1939
    Tertullian
    Textual Comparison
    Textual Integrity
    Theological Development
    Theophilos 2018
    Theophilus Of Antioch
    Thielman 2010
    Thursday-in-holy-week
    Timothy
    Titus
    Tomson-2005
    Tomson-2008
    Tradition
    Transfiguration
    Transfiguration-a
    Transfigurationb
    Transfiguration-c
    Trinity-1
    Trinity-10
    Trinity-11
    Trinity-12
    Trinity-13
    Trinity-14
    Trinity-15
    Trinity-16
    Trinity-17
    Trinity 18
    Trinity 19
    Trinity 2
    Trinity 20
    Trinity 21
    Trinity 22
    Trinity 23
    Trinity 3
    Trinity-4
    Trinity-5
    Trinity-6
    Trinity-7
    Trinity-8
    Trinity-9
    Trinity-a
    Trinity-b
    Trinity-c
    Trinity-sunday
    Tsang-2009
    Tuckett
    Tuesday-in-holy-week
    Tuilier-1995
    Tuilier-2005
    Twelftree-1984
    Two-ways
    Ty-19
    Vahrenhurst-2008
    Van-der-merwe-2017
    Van-der-merwe-2019
    Van-der-watt-2008
    Van-de-sandt-2002
    Van-de-sandt-2007
    Van-de-sandt-2008
    Vandesandt2010
    Vandesandt2011
    Van-de-sandt-flusser-2002
    Van-deventer-2021
    Varner-2005
    Vatican-ii
    Veith-1993
    Veith1993
    Veith-sutton-2017
    Verheyden-2005
    Verheyden-2008
    Vikisfreibergs-1997
    Visitation
    Voobus-1968
    Voobus-1969
    Vows
    Warfield-1886
    Wasson-toelken-1998
    Wednesday-in-holy-week
    Wegman 1985
    Wenham-1984
    Wenham-1992
    Weren-2005
    Weren-2008
    Weston-2009
    Wilhite-2019
    Wilson-2011
    Wilson2011
    Wilson20113470b5cf10
    Winger-2014
    Wischmeyer-2008
    Wolmarans-2005
    Wright-1984
    Young-2011
    Ysebaert2002
    Zangenberg-2008
    Zechariah
    Zephaniah
    Zetterholm-2008

Proudly powered by Weebly