10/25/23
Scholarly Reflections
Senn, Frank C. "Chapter Three: Early Christian Liturgy." Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997, 53-108.
Senn points out that early Christian gatherings were private in nature, in homes, and limited to Christians and those vouched for by Christians. The rituals and liturgy were not public events (Senn 1997, 53). However, there were clearly practiced elements of liturgy, no less than in Judaism. The Eucharist, for example, had close ties to the Jewish meal for the start of the Sabbath. Senn discusses this in some detail (Senn 1997, 55). In particular, he considers the similarity of Jewish prayers and the eucharistic prayers in the Didache (Senn 1997, 57).
Senn finds it important that the New Testament accounts of the Last Supper focus on the bread and the cup, without the other elements of the seder. In addition, Paul's assertion that the consecration was traditional by the time of his letter to the Corinthians calls us to see the Eucharistic celebration as a piece of liturgy which was fixed at a very early time (Senn 1997, 58).
The Eucharist is described in Didache 9-10 and 14. Senn describes scholarship briefly, certainly acknowledging that in this church order the prayers represent an early (late 1st century) version of eucharistic prayers (Senn 1997, 61-63). There is open debate as to whether chapters 9-10 describe an agape meal or communion, while chapter 14 is fairly clearly communion, celebrated weekly. The lack of an institution narrative is cause for debate. Bouyer has suggested that the narrative was a given but not part of the prayer (Senn 1997, 65), a view which may be supported in part by its absence in the 3rd century anaphora of Addai and Mari (Senn 1997, 66). Senn further notes that the basis of participation in all the meals is repentance, whether as in chapters 9-10 evidenced by baptism or in chapter 14 evidenced by confession of sins.
Senn notes that the New Testament has numerous passages often identified as hymns, songs, or creedal statements. He lists a number (Senn 1997, 67-68). These parts of Christian worship are also thought to come from synagogue worship, though we have relatively little specific information about worship in the early 1st century synagogues. However, Senn considers the second century Mishna to be a reasonably accurate reflection, as it describes in writing what had likely been done and discussed for several generations beforehand. He summarizes the basic form of synagogue worship (Senn 1997, 68-70). Readings, prayers, a homily, and singing were typical. The overall emphasis, especially on Sabbaths and special holidays, was on learning and remembering Scripture (Senn 1997, 70). This emphasis, as well as many of the forms, carried over into Christian practice. Senn continues by describing a number of parallels.
Based on Pliny's account of Christianity, Senn notes that an evening meal was part of Christian observance (Senn 1997, 73). It is possible that because Pliny had banned communal evening meals, the eucharistic meal became associated with the morning gathering and consisted only of the bread and the cup (Senn 1997, 73). By the time of Justin Martyr, writing about 150, the synaxis was relatively well defined and was not kept secret from the imperial authorities (Senn 1997, 74). The Christian worship had taken on a definitive form and structure.
The eucharistic prayer was the only element of worship which would describe the eucharistic meal. Senn observes that the earliest examples we have are the prayers in the Didache, then the clearer description in Hippolytus, about 215 (Senn 1997, 77). He goes on to discuss the account in Apostolic Tradition in more detail, including a translation of his eucharistic prayer (Senn 1997, 78-79). Senn further explores the Anaphora of Addai and Mari, from East Syria, probably dating to the third century. Again, he provides a translation, then comments on salient points (Senn 1997, 80-82).
Senn notes that the eucharistic prayers in Apostolic Constitutions VII.25 and in the Acts of Thomas 133 serve not as a thanksgiving but as a blessing. The texts certainly ask Christ's presence and blessing on the communion (Senn 1997, 84).
The Sanctus in the liturgy seems to appear first in Alexandrian liturgy (Senn 1997, 86). Senn finds some possible justification for its being directly related to the thanksgiving, though it is not necessary to hold to such a model (Senn 1997, 86).
In comparison to many of the textual statements of early Christianity, Senn finds the day for gathering to be fixed and described as "the Day of the Sun" which corresponded to "the first day of the week," and to be that day in honor of the resurrection of Jesus (Senn 1997, 87). There is some debate over whether the Christians tended to keep the Jewish model of the new day beginning at sundown, the Greek model of it beginning at dawn, or the Roman model which began the day at midnight. Senn notes that it was clear from early references and customs that Sunday was not considered a replacement Sabbath (Senn 1997, 89). It was specifically a celebration of God's fulfillment of His Messianic promises.
Senn brings up the challenge inherent in the dating of the crucifixion in comparison to the Passover, noting that Paul, along with the second century Epistula Apostolorum considers John's chronology to be correct (Senn 1997, 89). The conflicts between solar and lunar calendars, as well as controversies between Jews and Christians, led to debate about the correct day to celebrate Christ's death and resurrection (Senn 1997, 90). Senn describes the controversies in brief.
One reason for the importance of Easter is that it became the special date for baptizing converts to Christianity (Senn 1997, 91). Senn briefly describes baptism as a rite of initiation. There may well have been a distinction between Jewish and Christian views of baptism based on the Christian view of a coming of the Holy Spirit at the time of baptism (Senn 1997, 92). In Judaism it was seen as a ceremonial washing and act of dedication. An extensive period of catechesis developed by the late second century. Senn describes this as a period of several years in which candidates were taught and developed in godly practice.
The function of the assembled church developed over time. While there were calls to holiness at all times, it was apparent very early on that not all Christians were living a life of holiness at all times. Senn illustrates this concept with citations of 1 Corinthians, demonstrating the dynamic of questions of moral failure (Senn 1997, 97). The unity of the body in regard to the Eucharist is emblematic of the interaction of the spiritual and the physical. Senn describes these interactions at some length, also relating them to Paul's teaching on spiritual gifts, in close proximity to his teaching on communion (Senn 1997, 98ff). The ultimate purpose is to build up the body of Christ (Senn 1997, 99). By the late first century or early second century, there were clear and orderly differences observed, as different people exercised different gifts, for the benefit of all (Senn 1997, 101).
Senn identifies an ordination to ministry as an important element in liturgical development, since certain liturgical roles would be carried out by certain people. The apostles appointed by Jesus may or may not have had the same role as the "missionary apostles such as Barnabas and Paul" (Senn 1997, 102). Prophets and teachers seem to be directly equipped by the Holy Spirit, while bishops, elders, and deacons were appointed through a laying on of hands. Senn takes the laying on of hands to be a likely parallel to Jewish ordinations, but he admits we know very little about accompanying rituals (Senn 1997, 103). However, laying on of hands does appear to be a typical means of commissioning people for tasks. Senn observes that the ordination of bishops, presbyters, and deacons is described in Hippolytus, but that the specific rite is absent. We do see a pattern of hierarchy and honor for those officers (Senn 1997, 105-106).
Finally, Senn notes that the early Christians took the earthly worship as reflecting that worship in the heavenly presence of God (Senn 1997, 107). Senn describes these in very brief terms.
Scholarly Reflections
Senn, Frank C. "Chapter Three: Early Christian Liturgy." Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997, 53-108.
Senn points out that early Christian gatherings were private in nature, in homes, and limited to Christians and those vouched for by Christians. The rituals and liturgy were not public events (Senn 1997, 53). However, there were clearly practiced elements of liturgy, no less than in Judaism. The Eucharist, for example, had close ties to the Jewish meal for the start of the Sabbath. Senn discusses this in some detail (Senn 1997, 55). In particular, he considers the similarity of Jewish prayers and the eucharistic prayers in the Didache (Senn 1997, 57).
Senn finds it important that the New Testament accounts of the Last Supper focus on the bread and the cup, without the other elements of the seder. In addition, Paul's assertion that the consecration was traditional by the time of his letter to the Corinthians calls us to see the Eucharistic celebration as a piece of liturgy which was fixed at a very early time (Senn 1997, 58).
The Eucharist is described in Didache 9-10 and 14. Senn describes scholarship briefly, certainly acknowledging that in this church order the prayers represent an early (late 1st century) version of eucharistic prayers (Senn 1997, 61-63). There is open debate as to whether chapters 9-10 describe an agape meal or communion, while chapter 14 is fairly clearly communion, celebrated weekly. The lack of an institution narrative is cause for debate. Bouyer has suggested that the narrative was a given but not part of the prayer (Senn 1997, 65), a view which may be supported in part by its absence in the 3rd century anaphora of Addai and Mari (Senn 1997, 66). Senn further notes that the basis of participation in all the meals is repentance, whether as in chapters 9-10 evidenced by baptism or in chapter 14 evidenced by confession of sins.
Senn notes that the New Testament has numerous passages often identified as hymns, songs, or creedal statements. He lists a number (Senn 1997, 67-68). These parts of Christian worship are also thought to come from synagogue worship, though we have relatively little specific information about worship in the early 1st century synagogues. However, Senn considers the second century Mishna to be a reasonably accurate reflection, as it describes in writing what had likely been done and discussed for several generations beforehand. He summarizes the basic form of synagogue worship (Senn 1997, 68-70). Readings, prayers, a homily, and singing were typical. The overall emphasis, especially on Sabbaths and special holidays, was on learning and remembering Scripture (Senn 1997, 70). This emphasis, as well as many of the forms, carried over into Christian practice. Senn continues by describing a number of parallels.
Based on Pliny's account of Christianity, Senn notes that an evening meal was part of Christian observance (Senn 1997, 73). It is possible that because Pliny had banned communal evening meals, the eucharistic meal became associated with the morning gathering and consisted only of the bread and the cup (Senn 1997, 73). By the time of Justin Martyr, writing about 150, the synaxis was relatively well defined and was not kept secret from the imperial authorities (Senn 1997, 74). The Christian worship had taken on a definitive form and structure.
The eucharistic prayer was the only element of worship which would describe the eucharistic meal. Senn observes that the earliest examples we have are the prayers in the Didache, then the clearer description in Hippolytus, about 215 (Senn 1997, 77). He goes on to discuss the account in Apostolic Tradition in more detail, including a translation of his eucharistic prayer (Senn 1997, 78-79). Senn further explores the Anaphora of Addai and Mari, from East Syria, probably dating to the third century. Again, he provides a translation, then comments on salient points (Senn 1997, 80-82).
Senn notes that the eucharistic prayers in Apostolic Constitutions VII.25 and in the Acts of Thomas 133 serve not as a thanksgiving but as a blessing. The texts certainly ask Christ's presence and blessing on the communion (Senn 1997, 84).
The Sanctus in the liturgy seems to appear first in Alexandrian liturgy (Senn 1997, 86). Senn finds some possible justification for its being directly related to the thanksgiving, though it is not necessary to hold to such a model (Senn 1997, 86).
In comparison to many of the textual statements of early Christianity, Senn finds the day for gathering to be fixed and described as "the Day of the Sun" which corresponded to "the first day of the week," and to be that day in honor of the resurrection of Jesus (Senn 1997, 87). There is some debate over whether the Christians tended to keep the Jewish model of the new day beginning at sundown, the Greek model of it beginning at dawn, or the Roman model which began the day at midnight. Senn notes that it was clear from early references and customs that Sunday was not considered a replacement Sabbath (Senn 1997, 89). It was specifically a celebration of God's fulfillment of His Messianic promises.
Senn brings up the challenge inherent in the dating of the crucifixion in comparison to the Passover, noting that Paul, along with the second century Epistula Apostolorum considers John's chronology to be correct (Senn 1997, 89). The conflicts between solar and lunar calendars, as well as controversies between Jews and Christians, led to debate about the correct day to celebrate Christ's death and resurrection (Senn 1997, 90). Senn describes the controversies in brief.
One reason for the importance of Easter is that it became the special date for baptizing converts to Christianity (Senn 1997, 91). Senn briefly describes baptism as a rite of initiation. There may well have been a distinction between Jewish and Christian views of baptism based on the Christian view of a coming of the Holy Spirit at the time of baptism (Senn 1997, 92). In Judaism it was seen as a ceremonial washing and act of dedication. An extensive period of catechesis developed by the late second century. Senn describes this as a period of several years in which candidates were taught and developed in godly practice.
The function of the assembled church developed over time. While there were calls to holiness at all times, it was apparent very early on that not all Christians were living a life of holiness at all times. Senn illustrates this concept with citations of 1 Corinthians, demonstrating the dynamic of questions of moral failure (Senn 1997, 97). The unity of the body in regard to the Eucharist is emblematic of the interaction of the spiritual and the physical. Senn describes these interactions at some length, also relating them to Paul's teaching on spiritual gifts, in close proximity to his teaching on communion (Senn 1997, 98ff). The ultimate purpose is to build up the body of Christ (Senn 1997, 99). By the late first century or early second century, there were clear and orderly differences observed, as different people exercised different gifts, for the benefit of all (Senn 1997, 101).
Senn identifies an ordination to ministry as an important element in liturgical development, since certain liturgical roles would be carried out by certain people. The apostles appointed by Jesus may or may not have had the same role as the "missionary apostles such as Barnabas and Paul" (Senn 1997, 102). Prophets and teachers seem to be directly equipped by the Holy Spirit, while bishops, elders, and deacons were appointed through a laying on of hands. Senn takes the laying on of hands to be a likely parallel to Jewish ordinations, but he admits we know very little about accompanying rituals (Senn 1997, 103). However, laying on of hands does appear to be a typical means of commissioning people for tasks. Senn observes that the ordination of bishops, presbyters, and deacons is described in Hippolytus, but that the specific rite is absent. We do see a pattern of hierarchy and honor for those officers (Senn 1997, 105-106).
Finally, Senn notes that the early Christians took the earthly worship as reflecting that worship in the heavenly presence of God (Senn 1997, 107). Senn describes these in very brief terms.
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