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Scholarly Reflections
Senn, Frank C. "Chapter Sixteen: Liturgy in the Age of Romanticism." Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997, 568-608.
Senn considers both the French and American Revolutions to be rooted in the ideals of the Enlightenment, and to have served in part to validate Enlightenment values, ushering in a move which became Romanticism (Senn 1997, 568). Of the two revolutions, he acknowledges the French as the more forceful. Senn observes, "Romanticism is an effort to bring one age to the rescue of another, which means that the leading romantics were also critics of their own age and culture" (Senn 1997, 569). A rise of ethnic identity came about, possibly as a form of nostalgia. Senn observes the parallel increased interest in historical liturgy and ritual as indicative of the same nostalgia (Senn 1997, 570).
After the French Revolution, the new government established new national holidays to replace church observances, as well as removing the bulk of Roman Catholic priests from office (Senn 1997, 571). Governmental approval was required for any religious meetings or ceremonies. After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, a form of Romantic Catholicism came into being (Senn 1997, 572). In Russian Christianity, marriage between Orthodox and Lutherans was permitted so as to stimulate immigration into mining communities. The worship and culture took on a more cosmopolitan tone (Senn 1997, 573). Concurrent with these events, in Britain the Industrial Revolution introduced dramatic social changes (Senn 1997, 574). This revolution created a distance between people and the Church by its geographical and occupational upheaval. Senn observes that Britain saw significant debate about the nature of ecclesial authority during this period (Senn 1997, 575). Germany's geography was impacted by the fall of Napoleon (Senn 1997, 577). The newly enlarged kingdom of Prussia considered whether unity between all Protestants could be pursued effectively (Senn 1997, 578). At the same time, a confessional revival was under way, which reacted strongly against the Prussian Union. Until 1840, not only were churches required to be part of the Prussian Union, but also emigration was not allowed. When it was allowed in 1840, a wave of confessional Lutherans came to the United States (Senn 1997, 579). Where the Prussian Union did not exist, a "high church Lutheranism" grew. These movements were considered extreme by the more unionistic groups (Senn 1997, 580). Among the Reformed and Lutherans in North America, articulation of doctrinal stances led to deep divisions, including divisions between the North American and European versions of the same church bodies (Senn 1997, 581). In Scandinavia, after the fall of Napoleon, Norway was ceded to Sweden some years after Finland was taken by Russia. Denmark had accepted much of the Enlightenment philosophy (Senn 1997, 582). This led to a Rationalistic bias along with a rise of Pietism.
Among the Lutherans in North America, Senn observes a desire for "intersynodical cooperation on the basis of confessional ties" around the mid 1800s (Senn 1997, 585). Debate on matters including slavery and the right interpretation of biblical authority were significant causes of dissent, as were debates regarding confessional subscription and church fellowship. In the later part of the 19th century the development of a common worship book and liturgy which would be acceptable to the broadest possible spectrum of Lutherans was pursued (Senn 1997, 586). The resulting order of service was based on 16th century Lutheran liturgies. Many of the prayers and other liturgical wording were based on the English Book of Common Prayer and were justified by the fact that Cranmer had drawn on German Lutheran material (Senn 1997, 588). Intonations based on plainchant or based on Anglican or German Lutheran tunes were generally adopted for use (Senn 1997, 589). Several ancillary resources were published by the early 20th century. Senn observes that these publications did tend to bring some Lutheran church bodies together.
Senn notes that church music was at a low point in the early 1800s. Congregations were not generally singing responsories, organ accompaniment was not emphasized, and hymnody was largely neglected (Senn 1997, 592). A revival of Reformation hymnody took place, including publication of a number of German hymnals in the 1850s. New composition was generally neglected amid debates about the appropriateness of Christian art music, including the works of Bach being used rather than solely 16th century hymnody (Senn 1997, 593-594). Toward the close of the 19th century, a number of organ composers rose to prominence in Europe (Senn 1997, 594-595). However, for the most part, 19th century hymnody and choral writing throughout Europe is considered lackluster (Senn 1997, 597). Senn does detail a movement of composers who would adapt tunes of more famous secular composers to serve as hymn tunes (Senn 1997, 598-599). American hymnody based on folk tunes became more popular, though among Lutherans in America much of the hymnody was based on music imported from the church's nation of origin (Senn 1997, 600-601).
Senn observes that in America during the 19th century there was a tendency for the more simple, revivalist churches to develop the arrangement of a concert all, with the choir and preacher on a stage, but for the building to become more ornate as time passed (Senn 1997, 602). At the same time, there was a revival of Gothic architecture which resulted in buildings with a more Medieval European appearance. Senn observes that both designs suffer from a failure to emphasize the corporate nature of participation in worship as a body, rather than as a spectator (Senn 1997, 604).
Senn does note the strength, especially of the neo-Gothic churches, to provide a place for individual meditation and prayer (Senn 1997, 604). The buildings do successfully provide public gathering places and secluded areas.
The function of church buildings prompts Senn to discuss the use of art and vestments (Senn 1997, 605). Art can be seen as serving a teaching purpose or as an aid to devotion and prayer. The purposes of the art is a subject of debate, as is the matter of its appropriateness in liturgy as opposed to in religious encouragement (Senn 1997, 606). Along with an acknowledgement of liturgical art as something which should be as timeless and powerful as the liturgy, Senn recognizes that non-liturgical art may be more contextual in nature. Along with a revival in interest in art and architecture, the 19th century saw a revival of interest in the garments and textile features of the church (Senn 1997, 606-607). Traditional liturgical colors took on a more standardized appearance, with the "correct" color for the season or occasion being observed. Senn includes a listing of the typical colors (Senn 1997, 607).
Scholarly Reflections
Senn, Frank C. "Chapter Sixteen: Liturgy in the Age of Romanticism." Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997, 568-608.
Senn considers both the French and American Revolutions to be rooted in the ideals of the Enlightenment, and to have served in part to validate Enlightenment values, ushering in a move which became Romanticism (Senn 1997, 568). Of the two revolutions, he acknowledges the French as the more forceful. Senn observes, "Romanticism is an effort to bring one age to the rescue of another, which means that the leading romantics were also critics of their own age and culture" (Senn 1997, 569). A rise of ethnic identity came about, possibly as a form of nostalgia. Senn observes the parallel increased interest in historical liturgy and ritual as indicative of the same nostalgia (Senn 1997, 570).
After the French Revolution, the new government established new national holidays to replace church observances, as well as removing the bulk of Roman Catholic priests from office (Senn 1997, 571). Governmental approval was required for any religious meetings or ceremonies. After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, a form of Romantic Catholicism came into being (Senn 1997, 572). In Russian Christianity, marriage between Orthodox and Lutherans was permitted so as to stimulate immigration into mining communities. The worship and culture took on a more cosmopolitan tone (Senn 1997, 573). Concurrent with these events, in Britain the Industrial Revolution introduced dramatic social changes (Senn 1997, 574). This revolution created a distance between people and the Church by its geographical and occupational upheaval. Senn observes that Britain saw significant debate about the nature of ecclesial authority during this period (Senn 1997, 575). Germany's geography was impacted by the fall of Napoleon (Senn 1997, 577). The newly enlarged kingdom of Prussia considered whether unity between all Protestants could be pursued effectively (Senn 1997, 578). At the same time, a confessional revival was under way, which reacted strongly against the Prussian Union. Until 1840, not only were churches required to be part of the Prussian Union, but also emigration was not allowed. When it was allowed in 1840, a wave of confessional Lutherans came to the United States (Senn 1997, 579). Where the Prussian Union did not exist, a "high church Lutheranism" grew. These movements were considered extreme by the more unionistic groups (Senn 1997, 580). Among the Reformed and Lutherans in North America, articulation of doctrinal stances led to deep divisions, including divisions between the North American and European versions of the same church bodies (Senn 1997, 581). In Scandinavia, after the fall of Napoleon, Norway was ceded to Sweden some years after Finland was taken by Russia. Denmark had accepted much of the Enlightenment philosophy (Senn 1997, 582). This led to a Rationalistic bias along with a rise of Pietism.
Among the Lutherans in North America, Senn observes a desire for "intersynodical cooperation on the basis of confessional ties" around the mid 1800s (Senn 1997, 585). Debate on matters including slavery and the right interpretation of biblical authority were significant causes of dissent, as were debates regarding confessional subscription and church fellowship. In the later part of the 19th century the development of a common worship book and liturgy which would be acceptable to the broadest possible spectrum of Lutherans was pursued (Senn 1997, 586). The resulting order of service was based on 16th century Lutheran liturgies. Many of the prayers and other liturgical wording were based on the English Book of Common Prayer and were justified by the fact that Cranmer had drawn on German Lutheran material (Senn 1997, 588). Intonations based on plainchant or based on Anglican or German Lutheran tunes were generally adopted for use (Senn 1997, 589). Several ancillary resources were published by the early 20th century. Senn observes that these publications did tend to bring some Lutheran church bodies together.
Senn notes that church music was at a low point in the early 1800s. Congregations were not generally singing responsories, organ accompaniment was not emphasized, and hymnody was largely neglected (Senn 1997, 592). A revival of Reformation hymnody took place, including publication of a number of German hymnals in the 1850s. New composition was generally neglected amid debates about the appropriateness of Christian art music, including the works of Bach being used rather than solely 16th century hymnody (Senn 1997, 593-594). Toward the close of the 19th century, a number of organ composers rose to prominence in Europe (Senn 1997, 594-595). However, for the most part, 19th century hymnody and choral writing throughout Europe is considered lackluster (Senn 1997, 597). Senn does detail a movement of composers who would adapt tunes of more famous secular composers to serve as hymn tunes (Senn 1997, 598-599). American hymnody based on folk tunes became more popular, though among Lutherans in America much of the hymnody was based on music imported from the church's nation of origin (Senn 1997, 600-601).
Senn observes that in America during the 19th century there was a tendency for the more simple, revivalist churches to develop the arrangement of a concert all, with the choir and preacher on a stage, but for the building to become more ornate as time passed (Senn 1997, 602). At the same time, there was a revival of Gothic architecture which resulted in buildings with a more Medieval European appearance. Senn observes that both designs suffer from a failure to emphasize the corporate nature of participation in worship as a body, rather than as a spectator (Senn 1997, 604).
Senn does note the strength, especially of the neo-Gothic churches, to provide a place for individual meditation and prayer (Senn 1997, 604). The buildings do successfully provide public gathering places and secluded areas.
The function of church buildings prompts Senn to discuss the use of art and vestments (Senn 1997, 605). Art can be seen as serving a teaching purpose or as an aid to devotion and prayer. The purposes of the art is a subject of debate, as is the matter of its appropriateness in liturgy as opposed to in religious encouragement (Senn 1997, 606). Along with an acknowledgement of liturgical art as something which should be as timeless and powerful as the liturgy, Senn recognizes that non-liturgical art may be more contextual in nature. Along with a revival in interest in art and architecture, the 19th century saw a revival of interest in the garments and textile features of the church (Senn 1997, 606-607). Traditional liturgical colors took on a more standardized appearance, with the "correct" color for the season or occasion being observed. Senn includes a listing of the typical colors (Senn 1997, 607).
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