Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry - Blog

God as the Father

10/8/2026

Scholarly Reading
10/8/26

Espinosa, Alfonso. (2025). "Chapter 3: Contending for the Father." (pp. 41-51). In Contending for Christ Through the Creed: Apologetics for Loving Answers on the Christian Faith. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. (Personal Library)
   In the scale of physical things, the minute nature of one human compared to the entire universe makes us feel insignificant, to say the least (Espinosa 2025, p. 41). This naturally leads us to question the claim that the God of all would have any concern for us, if God even exists. Though it may be difficult to perceive God, the Bible declares him to exist, to care for our world, and to desire that all should believe him (Espinosa 2025, p. 42).
   Espinosa refers to David Hume's musing about the questions of Epicurus regarding evil. If God is able to prevent evil and is unwilling, then God is evil. If he wishes to prevent evil but cannot do so, he is not powerful (Espinosa 2025, p. 43). This creates a serious difficulty we must deal with in our theology. Our world is full of troubles which confront us with the relationship between God and evil.
   Espinosa's claim is that in providing Jesus, God the Son, to suffer and die in our place, God has most certainly done something about evil (Espinosa 2025, p. 45). This is theway, by God's providence, that He has made the world to work.
   While many humans think they should be able to dictate what God would do, Espinosa observes that Jesus discussed this "misplaced optimism" (Espinosa 2025, p. 47). In Luke 16:29-31 Jesus describes a man, after death, wanting soeone to rise from the dead and warn his brothers about impending judgment. Jesus speaks clearly that even someone rising from the dead would not change their judgment. The overarching message in all this is that our judgment is fallible and we need to receive correction from God.
   Espinosa considers it to be evidence of divine mercy that God reveals enough of his person and character that all can realize they need him (Espinosa 2025, p. 49). This revelation is partly through showing us that, in fact, we naturally suppress the truth of God (Romans 1:18-20). It also occurs when all people have some sort of sense of right and wrong which corresponds to God's word (Romans 2:14-15). One way or another, all humans are pointed to God the Father.
   Espinosa closes the chapter with some questions for thought and discussion (Espinosa 2025, pp. 50-51).

Popular Anthropology vs Truth

10/6/2026

Scholarly Reading
10/6/26

Espinosa, Alfonso. (2025). "Chapter 2: Culture and the Old 'I'." (pp. 30-40). In Contending for Christ Through the Creed: Apologetics for Loving Answers on the Christian Faith. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. (Personal Library)
   Though Espinosa has built a case for the personal identity and our interaction with sin, he now adds a complicating factor, our relationship with our broader culture and the interaction of Satan. We should recognize that the "enemies of God are dedicated to deception" (Espinosa 2025, p. 31). Espinosa describes this deception as a sort of shape-shifting. The same problems occur again and again, but in disguise, catching people off guard.
   Espinosa describes our temptation as it was manifested in Luke chapter four. Here Jesus endures psychological, social, and spiritual temptations (Espinosa 2025, p. 32). The same kind of temptations assail us all. Many come to us through our culture. And bringing hope to others requires that we understand our surrounding culture well enough to speak to its perceived problems (Espinosa 2025, p. 32).
   In the process of reading the culture we find many facets which appear good. Espinosa notes that negative threats regularly involve elements that could be used for good. He especially mentions cell phones and the internet, which can be used for good or evil (Espinosa 2025, p. 33). It is important that the Christian should not be contentious about cultural forces simply so as to cause contention. Rather, we try to discern the spiritual battle which surrounds us, then we attempt to end the conflict. Espinosa illustrates this principle by describing in brief the way we treat our bodies, either as a means of sexual pleasure or as a canvas to be altered so as to show off our priorities (Espinosa 2025, p. 34). In the end, our bodies are not our own property (Espinosa 2025, p. 35). It therefore becomes important that we use our bodies in ways pleasing to God. Espinosa describes our cultural failure in this area by a brief evaluation of the transgender movement, in which people are troubled by their biological sex and attempt to change their sexual attributes (Espinosa 2025, p. 36). These attempts have routinely failed to bring the relief promised (Espinosa 2025, p. 37).
   Counter to the demands of our culture, Espinosa calls for Christians to show compassion, empathy, and sympathy with those who are suffering due to the pressure they face (Espinosa 2025, p. 38). Through the message of the Gospel, we can see through the eyes of Jesus rather than our own eyes.
   In the end, Espinosa calls Christians to love others in this culture, demonstrating God's care for men, women, and children, guarding them from the troubles which surround them (Espinosa 2025, p. 39). In this love, hearts are turned to trust in God, the almighty one, who made all things.
   Espinosa concludes with questions for thought and discussion (Espinosa 2025, p. 40).

Human Identity

10/1/2026

Scholarly Reading
10/1/26

Espinosa, Alfonso. (2025). "Chapter 1: Contending for Identity: 'I'." (pp. 19-29). In Contending for Christ Through the Creed: Apologetics for Loving Answers on the Christian Faith. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. (Personal Library)
   The Apostles' Creed begins with an identification of just who is making confession. Espinosa considers it of great importance that people should grasp the identity they find in the biblical accounts. This is, in his mind, key to dealing with the dissonance we live in, where something seems to be wrong with us or our world (Espinosa 2025, p. 20).
   Espinosa considers the Bible, as God's word, to describe accurately what we should know. In this way, God helps us to see not only that some things in our world are wrong, but also that within ourselves there is something wrong (Espinosa 2025, p. 21). Much of this takes place as the Bible confirms what we know by intuition. It takes very little time with the Bible to conclude that humans were created good and that their choices brought negative consequences on them and their descendants (Espinosa 2025, p. 22). Augustine's analysis of human nature indicates that since the earliest human disobedience it has been impossible not to enter into sin.
   Our inability not to sin explains the evil we find in the world and in ourselves (Espinosa 2025, pp. 22-23). Though we would like to deny it, Espinosa is persuaded that we live in a condition by which we all fail in our thoughts, our words, and our actions. Even our good works, in one way or another, normally bring some sort of benefit to ourselves (Espinosa 2025, p. 23). In contrast, Espinosa notes, the Christian is simply to do good because God has already done good to us.
   Because we find ourselves dissatisfied, it is normal for us to attempt life change. Espinosa views our normal attempts to fix ourselves as unsuccessful. While we are able to make some types of life change, we normally end up off balance and remain dissatisfied (Espinosa 2025, p. 24). There's still something wrong.
   Espinosa brings us to our natural question at this point. Why doesn't God understand this problem and do something about it? Espinosa's contention is that God already did, as described in Ephesians 1:4-10 (Espinosa 2025, p. 25). His way of fixing the problem was by sending Jesus, God the Son, who was able to take care of our problem of sin.
   The work of Jesus brings people into a situation where, rather than being unable not to sin, they are now able not to sin (Espinosa 2025, p. 26). Though Christians are still plagued by a desire to sin, they are able, by God's grace, to fight back. This does not mean that we are successful in the fight, but the Bible describes us as no longer captives of sin. There is still plenty wrong with us and our world. However, the Christian understands the nature of the conflict.
   The Christian, then, is able to confess the truth. Despite a sinful condition, we can live by faith in Jesus who has brought us new life (Espinosa 2025, p. 237). The old identity is no longer in charge. Jesus is.
   Espinosa closes the chapter with a number of questions for thought and discussion (Espinosa 2025, pp. 28-29).

Contention, Not Anger

9/24/2026

Scholarly Reading
9/24/26

Espinosa, Alfonso. (2025). "Introduction: Contending while Loving." (pp. 1-15). In Contending for Christ Through the Creed: Apologetics for Loving Answers on the Christian Faith. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. (Personal Library)
   Espinosa, commenting on Jude 3 and the appeal to contend for the Christian faith, takes the contention to be a firm but gentle insistence that Jesus is the king of all (Espinosa 2025, p. 1). In other words, it is different from what we would culturally call "contentious." Arguments are not to be argumentative in nature. The whole is intended simply to maintain the truth claims Jesus makes in Scripture. Our contentions are to harmonize with the love of Christ (Espinosa 2025, p. 3).
   The object of our contention, says Espinosa, is the faith delivered to the saints. It is not something abstract in nature (Espinosa 2025, p. 3). Rather, it is something which can be identified in concrete terms.
   Espinosa evaluates interactions based largely on their tendency to label and demonize those with whom the speaker disagrees (Espinosa 2025, p. 5). The inconsistency between a message of God's love for others and a person's apparent hatred for others discourages onlookers from being open to the Christian faith.
   In contrast to this inconsistency, Espinosa builds a case for Christians to communicate the way God in Christ does (Espinosa 2025, p. 6). This involves gentle and persistent loving encouragement to people who need to live life in a way that honors God. Espinosa provides numerous examples of this pattern in Scripture.
   Means of communication shown in the Scripture are manifold. Espinosa identifies the use of words for dialog, which may include lecture or interactive questioning (Espinosa 2025, p. 9). The discussion normally acknowledges dignity and respect for all points of view even as there is a search for a right conclusion.
   To engage in positive dialog, it is necessary to understand both the culture and what the Christian message has to say to that culture (Espinosa 2025, p. 10). An understanding of a culture is not easy. Espinosa observes that cultures change quickly and that, in our culture, the Christian faith has increasingly been seen as irrelevant. Espinosa also suggests an important issue in a recent decline of people's concern with face-to-face communication.
   In this book Espinosa sets out to apply the Apostles' Creed as a framework of contending for the Christian faith in our current culture (Espinosa 2025, p. 11). He provides the text of the Creed (Espinosa 2025, pp. 11-12), then briefly describes the articles of the Creed as being derived directly from biblical texts.
   The chapter concludes with a number of questions for reflection and discussion (Espinosa 2025, pp. 14-15).

Mid-September Financial Update

9/23/2026

Mid-September Financial Update
From the Wittenberg Door News Desk - 9/23/26

Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry is funded by the generosity of our contributors. As a 501(c)(3) charitable organization we are glad to receive gifts which are tax deductible and which further our goal of providing face-to-face pastoral care to the students, faculty, staff, administrators and their families in the collegiate communities of Columbia Missouri.

Our annual budget, which is able to support all ministry activities and a full-time chaplain is approximately $100,000. In the past, we have not been able to raise our entire budget, though we remain hopeful. As of the middle of September, we have received about $28,500 in gifts, representing 28% of our budgeet.

As we pursue our goal of calling a full-time chaplain who will receive adequate pay, I urge you to continue providing the financial support this organization needs to continue. At present, Wittenberg Door is able to cover the expense of maintaining presence on campus and to care for transportation. However, we're still far away from being able to pay a salary. If you know people or organizations who would like to hear about our work or would consider contributing to support, please help us be in contact with them. This is a great time for congregations to invite Pastor Spotts to promote this Christ-centered work through a visit to a church!

Update on Call Process - September 2026

9/23/2026

From the Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry News Desk - September 23, 2026

Our last update on the call process was in July. You may notice virtually nothing has changed in the call process status. That is no surprise. For those readers who think a new chaplain shows up in a matter of moments, let me assure you that it doesn't usually work that way. What actually happens for the most part is that a ministry will be essentially on hold for quite a while and then when the person who's the right fit turns up, things move very quickly.

We're currently waiting for someone to appear who would be a good fit for Wittenberg Door, preferably someone who is able to be bivocational or who has the ability to mobilize a fairly substantial support base. We expect to start seeing a number of seminary graduates in the next few years, as there are a good number of men in the pipeline.

Our central concern remains that of providing genuine, face to face, pastoral care to the students, faculty, staff, administrators, and families of the collegiate communities in town. Please pray that we will be able to do this faithfully. For those who are able to offer financial support, please do so, remembering that the work of ministry isn't a money making venture but that it does cost money to keep things going. We remain dedicated to providing face to face pastoral care on campus!

A Wittenberg Welcome

9/23/2026

A Wittenberg Welcome
From the Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry News Desk - prepared August 27, 2026 but not posted until September 23

One of the foundational concepts articulated by the Lutheran Reformation is the centrality of Scripture as God's Word. To put it briefly, Christians are to live in accordance with what the Bible says. Scripture interprets Scripture. The Bible tells us, among other things, that we are to care for strangers (Deuteronomy 10:19; Psalm 146:9; Zechariah 7:9-10; Leviticus 19:34; etc.). In Matthew 25:35 Jesus speaks of being welcomed when he was a stranger. And Jesus' welcome of those who would trust in him is the motivation for welcoming others, in Paul's lettter to the Romans (15:7). It's something we are called to do. And it's a delight!
From its inception, Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry has purposely worked to make vital connections with visitors from other nations and cultures. We've done this through matching people with conversation partners who can help them with fluent communication. We host dinner and conversation evenings, which serve to welcome people from all nations to come together in caring communication. And we are always working to build and maintain relationships with the Mizzou International Center and with the Asian Affairs Center.
In this work of helping people from a variety of backgrounds to welcome one another, we find that having a minivan or an SUV available is really helpful. Here's an example.
In the summer of 2026, the Mizzou International Center asked for volunteers who could help a group of five students who were scheduled to arrive at the Columbia Regional Airport. I volunteered on behalf of Wittenberg Door. We'd be delighted to pick them up and help them get to campus. We have plenty of room for them and their things. It turned out that these were five undergraduates from different universities in Russia, here for a summer exchange. A total of about 800 undergraduates out of the entire collegiate population in Russia participated in the program, and five of them were sent to Mizzou.
We met as strangers at the airport. We got them to their residence hall and helped with the confusion caused by a security software upgrade that interfered with entry into the building. We got them a good meal.
The next day, knowing that our new friends probably needed to get some things that they didn't have in their suitcases, we made a quick shopping trip to those exclusive boutiques - Dollar Tree and Walmart! The selection was incredible, compared with what they would find at home. Of course, since they came to research and learn, I encouraged them to get one of everything in the snack aisle to test it!
We invited the students to join us in the Divine Service in case they would like to see what an American church service might be like. All of them chose to do so, and one of them continued going throughout the summer.
When we saw one another on-campus, we had good opportunities to visit and encourage one another. After all, how does friendship grow? When the summer production from the theater department was up and running, the four who had worked on the sets asked us to come to the play as their guests. You don't refuse a chance at that!
Because the group had a lot of side trips involved in their summer program, we had multiple trips to the airport, the bus station, and everywhere else under the sun. It was a good time.
As the group from Russia returned home, it was time to prepare to welcome more internationals into our community. Mizzou currently has about 1560 international students registered from 113 countries, plus over 700 researchers and educators. The international community makes up about 5% of the student population. We love welcoming people from all over the world! We love caring for them as Christ has welcomed us.

Our Russian Friends were impressed by the campus and by selection in stores!

After the summer programs, we re-started our normal school year activities, including our dinner and conversation evenings. Several new families and individuals have joined with us this year.

Example of New Testament Textual Criticism

9/22/2026

Scholarly Reading
9/22/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 9: The Practice of New Testament Textual Criticism." (pp. 300-343). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
   Metzger and Ehrman lay out what they consider to be the most important principles in dealing with variant readings. First, we should consider whether a variant can explain the creation of other related variants (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 300). Second, we evaluate the history of the earliest instance of the variant, which may explain a coinage of a term, for instance (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 301). Metzger and Ehrman go on to summarize the kind of external and internal evidence which is commonly used for evaluation of texts.
   Metzger and Ehrman next walk the reader through an example of the process they would use to evaluate variant readings (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 305ff). They would first consider the external evidence, such as the age and origin of the manuscript, as well as its similarity to other manuscripts. They provide a brief recap of the common categories of manuscripts.
   After considering external evidence of a manuscript, the internal evidence is weighed. Metzger and Ehrman summarize the various categories of transcriptional difficulties (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 313ff).
   Metzger and Ehrman continue with an example of their textual analysis of a variety of New Testament passages (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 316-340). They note the flexibility of the process, analyzing various criteria in different orders as the text requires.

New Testament Transmission - Brief History

9/17/2026

Scholarly Reading
9/17/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 8: History of the Transmission of the Text of the New Testament." (pp. 272-299). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
   Metzger and Ehrman emphasize the importance of understanding the transmission of texts in the attempt to identify the original reading (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 272). Each portion of the New Testament was written at a particular time, by a particular person or persons, and was first seen or heard by a particular audience. However, some parts of the New Testament also contain quotations or portions of other works. Metzger and Ehrman particularly note that 2 Corinthians may be a combination of two letters written by Paul, and that the second portion of chapter si may have been an interpolation of someone else's writing (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 273).
   The concept of publishing a book in antiquity was not the same as ours in the late 20th or early 21st century. A book was published when the author provided another copy for someone to read. This pattern was consistent in the Christian community. Many who would copy a document may have been amateurs, a situation which Metzger and Ehrman allege would lead to "a relatively large number of mistakes" (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 275). They further allege that the original would often be lost or destroyed.
   By the mid second century there were enough texts that copyists were able to compare multiple manuscripts. While this meant that readings could be evaluated for accuracy, it also meant that additional changes, such as harmonizations, could take place and be spread (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 276). In general, scholars find three basic families of texts, from different locations: The Western, Alexandrian, and Byzantine texts (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 276-280). The Western text tends to have inserted sentences and paraphrases as its variants. That of Alexandria is typically very accurately copied. The Byzantine text tends to be smooth and readable, with divergent readings conflated.
   Metzger and Ehrman observe that some recent scholarship has shown interest in the exegetical emphasis made at different times and in different places which reflects manuscript variants and which show elements of the social history of Christians (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 281). Metzger and Ehrman explore six of these areas.
   In times of doctrinal dispute, the combatants have been known to accuse each other of purposely altering the text of Scripture (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 283). Metzger and Ehrman note recent studies which have shown that a substantial number of variants in the Western text of Acts show an anti-Judaic bias (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 284). Further study is warranted as we explore the doctrinal stands which could be related to variant readings.
   The issue of conflicts between Judaism and Christianity may have created significant written discussion, as well as personal hostility (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 287). This can particularly be seen in more or less inclusive language in variants (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 288).
   No book of this time period would miss the opportunity to mention oppression of women. The time frame for a rise or fall in sexual oppression cannot be clearly identified.
   The work of apologetics has provided a fertile field to evaluate contentions in Christian interpretation (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 291). The question of the reality of miracles and the existence of prophetic gifts sparked many arguments which could have an influence on authoritative interpretations of Scripture. The deity of Christ is one of many serious issues for which we can look to the apologists for fruitful discussion.
   Asceticism has led to a number of alterations in manuscripts. Metzager and Ehrman note in particular Mark 9:29, where fasting has sometimes been added to prayer which could cast out a demon (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 295). There are only a few minor examples of such interpolations.
   Finally, movements regarding magic or fortune-telling have influenced the New Testament text. There are few, or possibly no, examples of textual change related to magic. However, there are examples of parts of Scripture being used as amulets to ward off evil (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 296).

How Do Copy Errors Happen?

9/15/2026

Scholarly Reading
9/15/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 7: The Causes of Error in the Transmission of the Text of the New Testament." (pp. 250-271). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
   In this chapter, Metzger and Ehrman describe a variety of things that can go wrong in the process of copying a manuscript. Many changes may be unintentional. For instance, a scribe with bad eyesight might mistake one letter for another (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 251). Among the many illustrations Metzger and Ehrman provide, we realize that some manuscripts may have been caused by difficulty deciphering the abbreviations or cursive script used in an earlier copy.
   The practice of copying by dictation, a very common method in antiquity, could lead to errors based on hearing or memory (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 255). As time passed, Greek pronunciation went through a vowel shift, after which multiple vowels and diphthongs could sound alike. This could cause errors in spelling or substitutions of homophones. Substitutions or omission of words can also be caused while copying from dictation due to brief lapses in memory of what has been read (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 257). Words may be put out of sequence, a sentence may be changed to match a parallel sentence, or synonyms may be used entirely by accident.
   Occasionally a scribe would make an error of judgment in copying, often by bringing a marginal gloss into the text (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 258).
   Some scribes engaged in intentional changes to the text (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 259). In some instances these are legitimate corrections, while in others they may have been ill-advised or even purposeful attempts at deceit. Some changes are attempts to regularize grammar or spelling (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 261-262). In some cases, scribes attempted to harmonize parallel passages (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 262). There are also cases in which a scribe added words to complete a balanced sentence or to provide what was left out in cases of ellipsis (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 263). For example, in Matthew 6, "Your Father who sees in secret will reward you" to which a scribe would add "openly." Akin to this practice, if a scribe had manuscripts with differing readings, he would be somewhat likely to conflate the two into a version which included the information from both (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 265).
   A significant problematic situation is that in which a scribe would alter the text in order to promote a particular doctrinal view (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 265). This accusation has often been made against heretics but also sometimes among orthodox teachers (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 266). Metzger and Ehrman provide examples by which the scribe may have laid additional emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit or which distance Jesus from possible accusation.
   Less troubling in nature is a tendency of scribes to insert miscellaneous details, such as a name of a pertinent person or a brief description of an action (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 268). This especially took place in additions of titles to the parts of the New Testament other than Paul's letters (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 270).
   Despite the many ways a text can be corrupted, Metzger and Ehrman assert that in general the copyists were very accurate (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 271). Considering the possibilities for error, the manuscript evidence tends to be copied diligently.

Choir Concert

9/10/2026

This is a great opportunity, a fine chorus.

Textual Criticism - Modern Methods

9/10/2026

Scholarly Reading
9/10/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 6: Modern Methods of Textual Criticism." (pp. 205-249). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
   Metzger and Ehrman, observing that scholars have always evaluated texts for reliability and that they have tried to identify additions and omissions, see a change in the methodology of scholarship beginning in the Lutheran Reformation (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 206). Innovations such as paleography, observing handwriting, punctuation, and graphic layout, subsequently spread to all the Christian scholarly community by the later part of the 17th century. Metzger and Ehrman describe in brief but clear terms the process of identifying potential "family" relationships of manuscripts based on agreement of the texts (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 207-209).
   The model Metzger and Ehrman discuss of grouping texts in families has not been accepted universally. In the 20th century, Joseph Bédier and others following him criticized the presuppositions which he thought forced evidence into categories woodenly, without adequate accounting for the actual quality of the manuscript (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 210) or the nature of manuscript preparation rather than typography (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 211). Other scholars, such as Albert C. Clark, have challenged the idea that the shorter reading is more likely to be original (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 212). Clark observed that omission of text was more common than insertion of text in classical works.
   B.H. Streeter and scholars following him have theorized that the New Testament text tended to diverge in the languages and manuscripts associated with Antioch, Rome, and Alexandria until about A.D. 200 (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 215). In his view, during the fourth century, the Syrian (Byzantine) text gained prominence and became the foundation of Textus Receptus.
   Toward the end of the 20th century, interest in a majority text grew (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 218) as well as a renewed interest in Textus Receptus (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 219). The general argument in this movement is that God preserved an authoritative text of the New Testament through ongoing selection of the correct manuscripts throughout the ages. The Byzantine text can be argued to have roots as early as the second century and to have survived through the times of persecution under Diocletian and later under Muslim dominance (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 221).
   Another significant movement has been a form of eclecticism in which variants are not weighed in terms of the text family, but rather in terms of internal consistency with the concepts presented (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 223). Authors are considered to be consistent with themselves in grammatical usage, even if there is very ancient manuscript evidence which shows inconsistencies.
   One area of debate Metzger and Ehrman discuss is that of "conjectural emendation." In this process, the scholar attempts to identify readings which may appear incomprehensible, then to restore a best guess as to the original reading. In this process it is necessary to evaluate whether the author may have intended or tolerated a difficult reading (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 227). It is important that the conjectural reading be explained in such a way that it is a necessary reading (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 228).
   Identifying family relationships among manuscripts is a process which has developed since 1725 (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 231). The process involves tracing a variant reading through historical presence in manuscripts, identifying a stream of text tradition (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 232). Metzger and Ehrman discuss a number of paradigms by which similarity can be assessed (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 235 ff).
   The use of computer technology has brought significant changes to textual study of the New Testament (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 240). Metzger and Ehrman, publishing this volume in 2005, would be unlikely to have dreamed of the scale of technological development to come in the twenty or so years since then.
   Metzger and Ehrman close the chapter with brief descriptions of two scholarly projects in process at their time; the Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 267-268) and the International Greek New Testament Project (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 268-269).

Textual Criticism Becomes a Scholarly Discipline

9/8/2026

Scholarly Reading
9/8/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 5: The Origins of Textual Criticism as a Scholarly Discipline." (pp. 197-204). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
Metzger and Ehrman describe roots of textual analysis and correction of variants as begun especially in the library of Alexandria in the Hellenistic period (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 197-198). Some of the tactics of comparison of manuscripts were brought into New Testament studies by the close of the second century A.D. (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 199). The critics, by and large, were excommunicated due to their close ties to pagan philosophy.
Origen was known to make decisions of preferred readings, basing his decision on interpretation rather than textual studies (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 200-201). Jerome engaged in evaluations of texts, generally based on the types of errors which can occur in copying (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 201). Augustine at times would give reasons for his preference of one reading over another. His decisions would be based on manuscript evidence, including the historic nature of manuscripts which had been favored in centers of academic excellence (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 203). In the Renaissance, Erasmus and Beza would use Greek manuscript evidence to correct Vulgate manuscripts (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 203).

Modern Textual Criticism, Brief Introduction

9/3/2026

Scholarly Reading
9/3/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 4: The Modern Critical Period: from Griesbach to the Present." (pp. 165-194). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
   Metzger and Ehrman see the work of Johann Jakob Griesbach in the late 1700s as the foundation for modern textual criticism (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 15). Griesbach made extensive evaluations of manuscript families based on their similarities and differences. In his work he also articulated the kind of questions he would use to weigh different readings. Metzger and Ehrman provide samples of Griesbach's criteria (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 166-167). Scholars largely following Griesbach's methodology drew extensively on patristic authors and lectionaries to inform their editions of the Greek New Testament.
   Because of the significant differences posited by the new generation of scholarship, the authority of the Textus Receptus declined. Rather, texts based on extensive collation of many manuscripts gained favor (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 171). This interest in ancient evidence led also to publication of many ancient manuscripts. At the forefront of this was Tischendorf, who published 22 volumes of biblical manuscripts and eight Greek New Testament editions (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 172). Metzger and Ehrman describe in some detail the critical New Testament edition of Westcott and Hort from 1881 (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 174ff). Westcott and Hort provided an extensive collection of notes about their methodology and the reasoning behind their decisions of what readings to follow. The critical editions had their opponents as well. Metzger and Ehrman describe one such opponent, John W. Burgen, who described the work of Westcott and Hort as illegitimate because of their alleged dependence on more modern texts (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 181-182).
   The 20th century saw many eclectic critical editions of the Greek New Testament, along with a variety of small clarifications of the critical processes used to evaluate texts. The primary editions in use today are published by the United Bible Societies (currently in a fourth edition) and a Nestle-Aland edition (currently in the 29th edition) (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 193-194).

Dangerous Theological Confusion

9/1/2026

  When I was a new convert to Christianity, it was within a church fellowship that would be considered "enthusiasts" by the Lutheran Reformation. Spirituality was largely to be developed by looking within yourself. The "true believers" were those who had a vivid and experiential faith. Thankfully, over the course of about 25 years, I was confronted with the power of the written Word of God. Gradually, through a number of steps, I ended up in what we might call "confessional Lutheran" circles. I can wholeheartedly say, with the apostle Paul, that "I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone believing" (Romans 1:16a, personal translation). The concept of salvation in Scripture is incredibly rich. It indicates being taken from one location to a desired destination, and arriving safely. In this biblical faith, as Paul wrote, "he transferred us from the power of darkness and established (us) into the kingdom of the love of his son" (Colossians 1:13, personal translation).
  During some periods of my Christian life, the idea of worldview evaluation has been a hot topic. One could argue that it is right now, as I work in the collegiate community, often assisting people in articulating their hope and confidence, trying to help them see things in a more biblical way.
  A friend recently asked me about a book by author and speaker Jamie Winship. Though I have approximately enough books on my "read this next" list to set off a seismograph if they fell off the shelves all at once, I looked up the author on the internet, checked an audio version of his book out from my local public library, and gave it a listen. The book in question was what appears to be his definitive volume, Living Fearless from 2022.
  Winship's website gives no hint of a theological orientation. That's the first red flag I found. He doesn't make a clear signal that he and his teachings would be subject to any recognizable type of peer review or theological authority. Though he presents himself as a Christian, it isn't clear what kind. This may not always be a problem, but it does raise a red flag. Is there something he is trying to hide? The orientation does matter. His wife, who works along with him, has a theological degree. Then again, there are theological schools that have all sorts of views, many of which are not readily reconciled with the Scripture.
  From the outset, Winship says that God never communicates with people using formulaic patterns, therefore we should also not use formulas. He extrapolates (from somewhere??) that anything which could seem to be a formula is devoid of meaning and is spiritually suspect, therefore we would never consider praying in a way we have seen before. He views formulas as useless at best, but more likely harmful. Therefore, we always need a new revelation. Except when we don't, as he illustrates in practical terms by using Bible verses (formulas) to back up his ideas and to fill out his prayers, which appear to be premeditated, or they would not be used in a book.
  While we are thinking about using Bible verses, we should note that Winship selects individual verses from a wide variety of Bible translations. I first ran into that tendency with Rick Warren, though it's surely been around longer than Warren. The use of the different translations is not explained in any way. I can only assume that he finds that particular translation and only that one works in the setting he is imagining.
  Winship tells stories well. However, they are cloaked in anonymity. He's always the hero of the story, and it's always about some strange, barely known people in desperate trouble, in some place that is war-torn but is never mentioned clearly. This is the typical methodology of the faith healers who are never able to produce actual people who have been healed. Again, a red flag which raises a good bit of suspicion about his credibility.
  At the end of each chapter, Winship provides a prayer and then tells the reader to be quiet and listen to what God might be whispering, to write it down, and to use it as the reliable record of the reader's true identity. This builds our hope on our feelings rather than on God's definitive word. There is no significant exposition of the Bible demonstrating that our hope is to rest on Christ crucified for us, raised from the dead, and living in us. Rather, Winship wants to know what we are sensing or hearing from God. There are three extrapolations which I am led to from this tactic.
  Possibly, Winship is saying that if I don't experience miraculous feelings and outcomes, it is my fault. I didn't hear well. I didn't cooperate well. Winship even says that if we think of ourselves in an incorrect way, God can't or won't communicate with us. This entirely discards the idea that the Bible is God's word that does communicate with us, letting us know what we are by nature, who God is by nature, and how the two are reconciled. Ultimately, I am left as responsible for my salvation.
  Because Winship is leading us through this walk, despite what we may think (he mentions that clearly in chapter one), we need to stay with him. He becomes the expert. He is the guide, and the mediator between God and man. This is a job the Bible describes as Jesus' work. Yet Winship exalts himself as the paradigm of true spirituality. Nobody else through all Christian experience has understood how to live in the freedom given by God. This, of course, is similar to the claims of the Gnostic teachers throughout the history of Christianity.
  In Winship's portrayal, then the "gospel" is not the good news of God's work in Christ to forgive sins. Rather, it is my work of finding an identity that will seem to produce miracles and victories. This teaching urges us to revisit the reformational descriptors of Law and Gospel. Law is what God demands of his people. Gospel is what God has done on behalf of his people. Winship views the gospel as something we do as we find out what our true identity is.
  I earlier mentioned theological categories. In part 3 of the book, Winship uses an etymological fallacy to say that a "category" is always an accusation. This may seem to be a small point. If he is saying that we must willingly allow for people and ideas that are not immediately in our comfort zone, he's right. However, if he is saying that categorizing something immediately serves to accuse and exclude it, he is barking up the wrong tree altogether. Though in its earliest usage, the Greek term that gives us the word "category" is used as an accusation, by the time of Aristotle it was universally accepted as a non-pejorative term that would be used to distinguish between one and another, for instance, between animals and minerals. Winship's scholarship, when it surfaced in this etymological fallacy, proves seriously suspect.
  The identification of God's people is a problem. In Winship's stories, Muslims remain Muslims even when they believe Jesus. What is he saying here? Is he saying that the "god" of Islam is the same as the triune God of the Bible? They are not the same character. Which one is rescuing people from sin and death? Which one is reconciling the world to God the Father? Winship is not clear on this.
  The issue at hand boils down to what Jesus is for. In this book, Jesus seems largely unnecessary. He may be the one who gives you a life in accord with your true identity. Really? How are you going to know? And is it possible that you have a number of different identities at the same time? The Lutheran doctrine of vocation and the dignity of the work God has given us comes to mind as a corrective to Winship's view. In his view, it seems that God establishes your identity as you have discerned it and you release it to him, by making confession of who you are really supposed to be. Again, you are left as the one who is responsible for your success or failure.
  Confession is also a major problem. Winship views the only type of confession to be your choice to agree with God about your real identity. You seem responsible for creating this reality by saying who God really wants you to be. There's no hint of the other types of confession that we might engage in, such as admitting our sin and failure (and asking for Jesus' forgiveness and restoration), or such as proclaiming the truth of what we believe (for example, through creedal statements). Then again, because someone has written or said these before, they must be formulaic statements, therefore they cannot possibly be genuine.
  So, did I like the book? You can answer that easily by now. I would consider the teaching of Winship and others who would be similar to him in their ideas to be dangerous. At its root, it is a type of Gnostic Enthusiasm, saying that you need to develop the god within you and that you will only do it by listening to the authoritative teacher, who has hidden wisdom that nobody was able to discern ever before. This is a dangerous type of worldview. It leaves you in charge of your salvation, and it presents law as gospel. It asserts that salvation is found in your understanding, rather than in Christ's work. It leads down a path of hopelessness.
  This is the kind of teaching from which I fled many years ago. I saw it wreaking havoc in many lives. It is not biblical. It does not stand the test of history. It should be rejected entirely and out of hand.

Textus Receptus' Prominence

9/1/2026

Scholarly Reading
9/1/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 3: The Precritical Period: The Origin and Dominance of the Textus Receptus." (pp. 137-164). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
   Though the Latin Vulgate was published printed using movable type by 1456, it was not until 1514 that Greek typographical customs were adequately developed to print a Greek New Testament (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 138). This was largely due to indecision regarding the many abbreviated forms and combinations of letters used in the manuscript tradition.
   The manuscript or manuscripts used to prepare the various print runs remain a matter of some uncertainty (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 141-142). Metzger and Ehrman discuss the edition of Erasmus of Rotterdam, which is known to have had different sources for different portions, as well as a passage for which Erasmus had no Greek manuscript so translated the passage from the Vulgate into Greek himself (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 145). Erasmus' edition became the foundation of the Textus Receptus, and went through numerous editions as evidence for readings was discovered up to a fifth edition in 1535 (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 148).
   After the release of the Textus Receptus, Metzger and Ehrman discuss a process of collation of variant readings, which went on for nearly 200 years (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 153). The variant readings which were found would normally be referenced in the apparatus of Greek editions. As time progressed, scholars moved to more accurate catalogs of information about the manuscript evidence consulted. By the early 1700s, editions of the Greek New Testament would often depart from the Textus Receptus. The editors would also begin to include comments about why they chose the readings or interpretations they did (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 158).
   Metzger and Ehrman see the formal practice of critical scholarship arising in the first half of the 18th century, as scholars, recognizing that mere age or frequency of a reading could be misleading, began to weigh the accuracy of various manuscript traditions (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 159). As the second half of the 18th century progressed, evaluation methods continued to become more granular and specific (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 160-161).

New Testament Textual Witnesses

8/27/2026

Scholarly Reading
8/27/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 2: Important Witnesses to the Text of the New Testament." (pp. 52-134). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
   This chapter discusses in turn the "three classes of witness" for the New Testament text; Greek manuscripts, ancient translations, and quotations found in other works (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 52).
   Metzger and Ehrman describe the main manuscripts in brief, observing at the outset that approximately 5700 Greek manuscripts have been identified (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 52). The manuscript evidence can be sorted into groups according to their origin and the manuscripts they were likely copied from. An extensive description of the discovery and publication of Codex Sinaiticus (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 62-67) is illustrative of the kind of negotiations which can lead to the publication of an ancient manuscript.
   In addition to Greek copies of the New Testament, Metzger and Ehrman review early translations into Syriac, Latin, and Coptic (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 94). These were made by missionaries who were crossing language barriers, primarily in the second and third centuries. Because of linguistic differences and the process of correction, sometimes from other translations, these versions are not overly helpful with determining the particular wording of a Greek original. However, they can help with confirmation of the presence of phrases or sentences (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 95).
   The final set of witnesses for the New Testament texts consists of quotations by patristic authors. Metzger and Ehrman observe, "so extensive are these citations that if all other sources for our knowledge of the text of the New Testament were destroyed, they would be sufficient alone for the reconstruction of practically the entire New Testament" (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 126). These quotations, when they show up variants, also assist in identifying a text type which may have prevailed at the time and place where the patristic author lived.

How Were Books Made in Antiquity?

8/25/2026

Scholarly Reading
8/25/26

Metzger, Bruce M. & Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). "Chapter 1: The Making of Ancient Books." (pp. 3-51). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. (Personal Library)
   Metzger and Ehrman begin with a survey of the means of producing books in antiquity, and really until the advent of typography and printing in the 15th century. They observe that virtually all manuscripts of the New Testament are either on papyrus or vellum (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 4). After a rudimentary discussion of the production of papyrus, vellum, and inks, Metzger and Ehrman discuss the formats in which ancient books appeared (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 11ff).
   A standard scroll of about 32 feet in length was fairly inconvenient due to the need to hold it open, advance, and then roll it again with both hands (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 12). This led to an early Christian invention, certainly by the early part of the second century, of the codex, sewn along one side, the same format we still use for books (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 12). The codex became the standard format for Christian writings rather quickly, while for non-Christian works the popularity lagged behind (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 13-14).
   Before writing on a piece of papyrus or parchment a scribe would lay the work out to keep his writing uniform. Papyrus already has guide lines from the fibers. However before writing on vellum the scribe would make guide lines and margins (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 16). Customs of abbreviations and character styles differed with place and time, as well as the formality of the writing (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 17). The re-use of a vellum page or pages, a palimpsest, was common, though in 692 re-use of a Scripture copy was condemned (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 22). Development of writing styles gradually developed. By the eighth century, spaces between words had become common, and use of punctuation was appearing. Metzger and Ehrman describe the work of a copyist in some detail, including what we know about the price of making a copy of a book. Colophons, comments written into books by scribes, underline some of the challenges of writing (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 29). The work, however, did have rewards, most notably the opportunity to explore the thought world of the material being copied.
   New Testament manuscripts have been known to include a variety of useful tools for the readers (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 33). Some have indications of new chapters or sections. Sometimes chapters have been given titles, normally in a margin. Eusebius of Caesarea created a cross-referencing system to mark parallel content in the Gospels (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 38). Some manuscripts include a brief introduction to the text and/or author (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 39). Some also bear brief superscriptions or subscriptions with information about the book (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 41). Punctuation became fairly common in the sixth and seventh centuries. Likewise, glosses and comments on the meaning of a passage can be found in many manuscripts (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 41-43). Some manuscripts feature pictures of characters and events found in the Scripture (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 43). It is not unusual for a manuscript to be arranged in periodic form, identified as "cola" or "commata" (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 45). This would serve as an aid to public reading, as it could clarify pacing and themes in the writing. There are also examples of musical notes or references to a lectionary in manuscripts, often in red ink (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, p. 46). The red ink has often been preserved in publications which feature instructional comments ("rubrics") in red.
   Metzger and Ehrman conclude the chapter with an analysis of the various types of manuscripts known (Metzger & Ehrman 2005, pp. 47ff). In all, nearly 6,000 partial or full manuscripts are currently known. They are generally classified according to writing material or type of lettering. This is a generous amount of manuscript evidence when compared to the quantity of manuscripts of other works from the same period.

Whom Do You Trust? Romans 11-12 - Sermon for 8/23/26

8/24/2026

Ministry Happenings in Columbia

8/24/2026

From the Wittenberg Door News Desk: Ministry happenings in Columbia's Lutheran community
In addition to the many activities you can find on our Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry website at https://www.wittenbergcomo.com/activities.html we'd like to remind you that we're in fellowship with three Lutheran churches in Columbia. While the campus ministry provides face to face pastoral care on campus, the work of a local congregation is something you don't want to be without! We're very glad for the good working relationship we can maintain with these local congregations.
Trinity Lutheran Church https://www.trinity-lcms.org/ hosts a variety of Bible discussions, including a general study Mondays at 9:00 am and a men's study Thursdays at 7:00 am. There's a Sunday Bible study at 9:00 am after their 8:00 am divine service and before their 10:30 am service. Trinity also celebrates the divine service Monday evenings at 6:00. Various other groups meet to care for the overall well-being of people in the congregation and community. Trinity is strongly focused on historic Lutheran liturgical worship and on cultivating a life that comports with the reception of God's gifts in the liturgy. Trinity Lutheran has links to Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry on their website, and has indicated a renewed interest in caring specifically for the many college students and families in the collegiate community who attend. Trinity Lutheran recently provided me with this flier for an activity August 30.
Campus Lutheran Church https://www.campuslutheran.org/ has a Wednesday college group, "The Gathering" which meets at 8:00 pm. They host an international Bible study Thursdays at 12:15 pm, an American English class Fridays at 10:00 am, and each week after their 11:00 am service they have a student lunch. While originally founded with a campus identity, they have grown into a church characterized by their care for families in the community surrounding the church location.
Alive in Christ Lutheran Church https://aic.org/ hosts a dinner Wednesdays at 6:30 followed by family oriented studies for all ages. Beginning September 10 they will have a ladies' Bible study Thursdays at 9:30 am. Their Sunday services are at 8:30 and 11 am, with a Bible class at 10:00. Alive in Christ is known for their contemporary worship style and their structured gatherings for the different smaller groups within the congregation.

Some Conclusions about the Eucharist

8/20/2026

Scholarly Reading
8/20/26

Bouyer, Louis. (1968). "Conclusion." (pp. 462-474). In Eucharist: Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic Prayer. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame. (Personal Library)
   Throughout this book, Bouyer has evaluated the eucharist in general, and the eucharistic prayer more specifically as our response to the read word of God which comes earlier in the liturgy. This prayer, in Jewish tradition a response to the Old Testament, "was formulated in the berekah" (Bouyer 1968, p. 463). The elements of prayer were intended to follow the believer throughout the affairs of daily living.
   Bouyer has consistently argued that his Roman Catholic view of the eucharist is correct and that movements such as the 16th century Reformation fail to express what they should understand. He expresses this understanding clearly in this conclusion. '[W]e give our consent to the completion in our flesh of the sufferings of Jesus for his body which is the Church, in the steadfast hope of his Parousia in which we shall all participate together in his resurrection. Thus we inaugurate the eternal glorification of God the creator and savior who on the last day will make the Church the panegyria, the festal assembly, in which all of mankind will join in the heavenly worship…" (Bouyer 1968, pp. 464-465). The emphasis I take from this, and which I think is consistent with his expectation throughout, is that the eucharist is our work which, when done right, continues or completes the work of Jesus so he can truly be the savior. This is diametrically opposed to the historic Lutheran, and, I believe, biblical view that Jesus' work is complete and that in the eucharist we joyfully receive his body and blood which he feeds us to preserve us in our salvation.
   While Bouyer is generally opposed to Protestants, he does say that the Calvinist view of the eucharist as a symbolic dialog between God's Word and man's faith in Christ (Bouyer 1968, p. 469). Again, this is an area where Lutherans would reject Calvinists.
   The argument that the most ancient known eucharistic forms should be restored, such as found in Hippolytus or Addai and Mari presents itself again. However, Bouyer sees those materials as inferior because they are lacking the berakoth and the sanctus, which he views as creating the complete eucharistic presentation (Bouyer 1968, pp. 470-471).

Roman Catholic Eucharistic Restoration in the 20th Century

8/18/2026

Scholarly Reading
8/18/26

Bouyer, Louis. (1968). "Ch. 13: The Catholic Eucharist Renewed." (pp. 443-461). In Eucharist: Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic Prayer. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame. (Personal Library)
Bouyer here discusses a renewal of Catholic eucharistic liturgy after the Council of Trent, which effected some "necessary reforms" (Bouyer 1968, p. 443). In addition to what we know as the Counter-Reformation, Bouyer observes that there was a liturgical reformation in process in the 15th and 16th centuries (Bouyer 1968, p. 444). These reforms covered the main points addressed in the second Vatican Council in the 20th century (Bouyer 1968, p. 445). The general pattern has been to restore elements and order from earlier history. Bouyer describes the work in detail with multiple quotations (Bouyer 1968, pp. 448ff).

Where Did You Come From? Isaiah 56 - Sermon for 8/16/26

8/17/2026

The Reformation and Multiplication of Eucharistic Changes

8/13/2026

Scholarly Reading
8/13/26

Bouyer, Louis. (1968). "Ch. 12: Modern Times: Decomposition and Reformation." (pp. 380-442). In Eucharist: Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic Prayer. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame. (Personal Library)
   From the twelfth century onward, Bouyer observes a process of extension of portions of the chanted liturgy by addition of tropes to the established texts (Bouyer 1968, p. 380). Over time, this could even include insertion of popular songs which had been brought into the liturgy. Beginning in the 13th century, the elevation of the consecrated elements became the central feature of the mass (Bouyer 1968, p. 382). This allowed further detachment of the liturgy from the events in the mass. As the Reformation drew near, there were numerous attempts at recovering the authentic and ancient eucharist. In Bouyer's view, these all tended to pick and choose mostly recent elements to retain (Bouyer 1968, p. 384).
   Luther, who was well equipped to reach back to an Augstinian theology, after 1523 developed his two mass orders which Bouyer considers a failure because of containing innovations (Bouyer 1968, p. 385). The innovation described by Boyer is to remove the concept of the mass as a sacrifice and to consider only the words of institution necessary to the consecration. Bouyer further sees the Formula Missae of 1523 as "a kind of monument to his basic failure" (Bouyer 1968, p. 387). He sees it as embracing "aberrant tendencies" and having an unrecognizable eucharist. Bouyer walks briefly through the elements of the Lutheran communion, observing that it lacks the extended prayers which had developed after the fourth century, and thus is not an adequate reconstruction (Bouyer 1968, p. 388).
   As time progressed and as the additional branches of the Reformation spread, the ancient prayers were generally lost from the eucharist, along with the symbolic actions (Bouyer 1968, p. 390). In many cases, only the institution narrative remained. This is especially the case in the Calvinist and Zwinglian camps, where the institution narrative alone was used, and in which there was a self-conscious move to avoid anything that seemed Roman (Bouyer 1968, p. 392). Bouyer describes this in detail.
   Bouyer continues with a discussion of the Lutheran liturgical restoration movement as seen in Sweden "from Olavus Petri to John III" (Bouyer 1968, p. 396). In 1531, Olavus Petri published a first mass in Swedish, including an amplification of the preface, linking the forgiveness of sin and the history of salvation (Bouyer 1968, p. 398). Bouyer sees this as recapturing an important element of the Medieval Roman tradition. In the next generation some idea of sacrifice was brought back into the liturgy (Bouyer 1968, p. 399).
   Cranmer's 1549 Prayer Book represented another Protestant liturgy which reflected some Catholic element (Bouyer 1968, p. 407). Bouyer regards this as a reworking of the Catholic liturgy in such a way as to be acceptable to Zwinglians. While at times Bouyer will acknowledge Cranmer's skill as a liturgist (Bouyer 1968, p. 416), he yet considers the work itself to strip the historic liturgy of its form and some essential elements of substance, in particular the sacrificial nature of the Mass and the presence of Christ. Cranmer's 1552 version of the Prayer Book further stripped the real presence of Christ from the liturgy (Bouyer 1968, p. 417).
   Cranmer's 1552 liturgy was not broadly accepted by English Calvinists or Anglicans. In 1556, John Knox published a distinctively Calvinist liturgy (Bouyer 1968, p. 420). Here the institution narrative and other "evangelical sentencce[s]" (Bouyer 1968, p. 422) are addressed directly to the believers, rather than being imbedded in the prayers. Such patterns continued through the middle of the 17th century in a variety of forms of liturgy.
   Bouyer next considers an Anglican eucharistic revival in Scotland (Bouyer 1968, p. 424). In this movement, exemplified by a 1637 liturgy, elements of sacrifice and real presence moved back into the eucharist. In 1718 and following, the various liturgies prepared by the 'non-jurors," who rejected allegiance to William of Orange and Queen Mary, continued restoration of the real presence and sacrifice to the mass, but by means of rejecting the Roman canon in favor of elements of the liturgy of St. James (Bouyer 1968, p. 426).
   The eighteenth century in France saw a number of moves to restore the elements of sacrifice and real presence to the liturgy (Bouyer 1968, p. 430). Bouyer does observe that in the various Protestant liturgies, elements were gathered and used with or without any historical context (Bouyer 1968, p. 431). By the 20th century, after World War I, Bouyer describes the ecumenical group in fellowship with the monastery at Taizé (Bouyer 1968, p. 432). This group produced a liturgy which Bouyer evaluates in some detail. Bouyer is more enthusiastic about this liturgy as it moves to capture the concepts of sacrifice, presence, and mystery which are less prominent in many modern liturgies.
   Bouyer briefly reviews a 20th century ecumenical liturgy from South India, noting its roots in Anglican piety (Bouyer 1968, pp. 437-438). He considers this work to be by and large unremarkable. Finally, he discusses a eucharistic liturgy from a coalition of Lutherans in North America, the United Lutheran Church (Bouyer 1968, pp. 439-442). Bouyer observes that this coalition of Lutherans was self-consciously restoring piety to a previous state, unlike the conditions of church bodies which were more dissimilar (Bouyer 1968, p. 439). They therefore moved closer to the liturgy which had been in use in the early 16th century, and even to reach to patristic sources (Bouyer 1968, p. 440). Bouyer considers the ULCA liturgy of 1958 to succeed in its attempt to restore liturgical purity (Bouyer 1968, p. 441).

What Is A Development or Deformation of Liturgy?

8/11/2026

Scholarly Reading
8/11/26

Bouyer, Louis. (1968). "Ch. 11: The Middle Ages: Development and Deformation." (pp. 338-379). In Eucharist: Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic Prayer. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame. (Personal Library)
   After a candid admission that even defining the parameters of the Middle Ages is difficult at best, Bouyer notes that there were a number of liturgical "renascences" beginning in about the eleventh century (Bouyer 1968, p. 339). These were creative moves which may have constituted both deformations and developments of the eucharistic liturgy.
   During the Middle Ages, in the Byzantine tradition, as in much of the East, the eucharist was regularly that of Basil, James, or Chrysostom. These were gradually stripped of variations from one another (Bouyer 1968, p. 340). Apart from the influence of Byzantium, prayers were added to the liturgy (Bouyer 1968, p. 341). Bouyer's overall opinion is that, especially in the West, this has been harmful to liturgy. "When it is not fixed, it tends only to dissolve" (Bouyer 1968, p. 342).
   As an example, Bouyer turns to the eucharist of Nestorius (Bouyer 1968, pp. 342ff). In this, he sees a number of "exhausting dissertations which have more the feeling of coming from a professorial chair than an altar" (Bouyer 1968, p. 350). The Armenian eucharist, in contrast, is well ordered and, in Bouyer's view, beautiful. He goes on with extensive quotations from it (Bouyer 1968, pp. 351ff). In these quotations there are numerous instances of the priest praying a particular text silently or in a soft voice, while the choir continues iwth something else. This is the first documentation of such a practice. Bouyer takes as a third example Maronite anaphoras from Ethiopia, in which the liturgy seems interrupted by exclamations or digressions (Bouyer 1968, pp. 358ff).
   In the West more broadly the Roman canon was gradually adopted and universal by the eleventh century (Bouyer 1968, p. 360). The gradual adoption may be illustrated by comparison of numerous Medieval sacramentaries, of which Bouyer mentions the Leonine (Bouyer 1968, p. 360), the Gelasian and the Gregorian (Bouyer 1968, p. 361). The various Gallican sacramentaries, which Bouyer has already discussed, are also examples of these adoptions. The sacramentaries typically provide numerous liturgical options. For instance, Bouyer notes about 200 different prefaces for the eucharist found in the Gelasian sacramentary (Bouyer 1968, p. 362).
   The practice of "the silent canon," in which many of the eucharistic prayers are prayed silently or in an undertone by the celebrant, is a challenge to our study of liturgy in this period (Bouyer 1968, p. 366). The actual practices are not always clearly stated. The practice may have developed from an impatience which led priests to continue in the liturgical prayers while the choir or congregation was singing or chanting (Bouyer 1968, p. 371). Bouyer mentions an alternative theory for the origin of the silent canon, namely that it was inspired by mystery religions and a desire to protect the prayers from profane imitations (Bouyer 1968, p. 374). However, ancient authors who discuss the practice do not indicate any protection of the liturgy as a reason for the silence. Eventually, the liturgy would progress along two independent tracks, one for the priest and one for everyone else (Bouyer 1968, p. 377).