Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry
  • Home
  • Calendar
  • Events
  • Blog
  • Recording Archives
  • Resources
    • Bible Study - Matthew's Gospel
    • Bible Study - John's Gospel
    • Bible Study - Ephesians
    • Greek Tutorials
  • About
    • About Wittenberg CoMo
    • Support Us
    • Contact Us
  • Position Papers
  • Sandbox

Theology Influenced by Philosophy, Scripture, and Tradition

5/13/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
5/13/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2327-2561). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 117-160).

"§117. General Observations, Doctrinal Importance of the Period. Influence of the Ancient Philosophy." (pp. 2327-2332).
    In the period after the council of Nicea, Schaff sees a time of churchly practice settling the concepts of orthodoxy, rather than developing new concepts (Schaff 2014, p. 2327). Doctrinal statements were formalized and tested, particularly in the Western church. The tests were in the form of theological controversies, some of which were very serious in nature (Schaff 2014, p. 2328). Schaff briefly describes the way people of different social classes would participate in the disputes. In the scope of controversy, he sees a parallel to the Lutheran Reformation (Schaff 2014, p. 2329).
    During this period several ecumenical councils served to make clarifications of orthodox doctrine (Schaff 2014, p. 2329). Their decrees serve as the fruit of lengthy and intense discussions. In the East, Schaff finds the debates to be primarily in the realms of "Theology and Christology, while the Latin church devoted itself to Anthropology and Soteriology" (Schaff 2014, p. 2329). These fields fall in line with different cultural values of the Greek and Latin worlds. Both East and West show signs of Platonism in their theological conclusions (Schaff 2014, p. 2331). By the middle of the 6th century Schaff finds a greater influence of Aristotle on theological inquiry (Schaff 2014, p. 2332). Mysticism favored Platonic structures, while scholasticism favored those of Aristotle.
    
"§118. Sources of Theology. Scripture and Tradition." (pp. 2332-2344).
    In this section Schaff updates the story of the source of theological authority. The New Testament is now completely identified, largely agreed upon, and widely circulated along with the Old Testament (Schaff 2014, p. 2333). Tradition now includes that which has commented on and reacted against heretical movements. A typical citation of tradition at this period, then, identifies traditionally accepted means of interpreting Scripture. The Apostles' Creed in the West and the Nicene Creed in the East were recognized and used as traditionally formulated summaries of Scripture (Schaff 2014, p. 2334). Schaff briefly compares and contrasts this period's understanding of Scripture and tradition to those typically held in his day. The fifth century saw broad agreement to a closed canon of Scripture as we have it today, ratified at a number of ecumenical councils (Schaff 2014, p. 2336).
    Schaff observes the scholarly difficulties posed by biblical manuscripts of the fourth century and into this period. As of his writing, the earliest datable manuscripts were from the fourth century and had "errors and omissions of every kind" (Schaff 2014, p. 2337). The problem of identifying a clean and authoritative text history was substantial. He describes the various manuscripts in brief. Rather than making the pessimistic conclusion of a scholarly skeptic, Schaff takes a positive view. The genuine message and the historic Christian faith is not dependent on the letters of the manuscripts but rather on the message of the Gospel preserved in the Scripture as understood through historic tradition (Schaff 2014, p. 2338). In the final analysis, the authority lies in the Scripture as preserved by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit throughout history. The orthodox understanding of Scripture is the recognized tradition (Schaff 2014, p. 2339). This concept was solidified as time went on to an investigation of consensus over time, geography, and current opinion. If all three were in agreement, an idea may be considered orthodox (Schaff 2014, p. 2341).
    Schaff considers tradition to have diverged from Scripture in some ways during the period, resulting in a more rigid dependence on orthodox tradition, which could be used to exclude otherwise biblical teachers (Schaff 2014, p. 2342).

​
0 Comments

Early Descriptions of the Trinity

5/8/2025

0 Comments

 
Tuesday Scholarly Notes
5/8/25

Kelly, J.N.D. (1978). "Chapter 4: The Divine Triad." in Early Christian Doctrines, Revised Edition." (pp. 83-108). Harper San Francisco. (Personal Library)
    Kelly observes that from the earliest period, Christians have been staunchly monotheistic, confessing one all powerful God who created and sustains all things (Kelly 1978, p. 83). After about the middle of the second century there are some hints of secular philosophical thought creeping into Christian writings (Kelly 1978, p. 84). In the instances Kelly notes, there is some acknowledgement of the secular philosophies moving in a right (or wrong) direction, and clarification or refutation made in the terminology which would be used among the philosophers.
    The difficulty faced by the early Christians was how to articulate this one God who revealed himself through Jesus and poured out the Holy Spirit. Working with these three entities in such a way as to fit with the concept of one and only one God was a challenge (Kelly 1978, p. 87). The clear articulation of "one God existing in three co-equal Persons" was not formally articulated and accepted until 381 at the Council of Constantinople (Kelly 1978, p. 88). In this chapter Kelly reviews the attempts at a trinitarian articulation up to 325 and the Council of Nicea. The descriptions of baptismal catechesis from the early period are particularly helpful in this regard. Irenaeus, the Didache, and Justin Martyr all describe baptism in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Kelly 1978, p. 89). Kelly discerns this as some sort of established liturgical form (Kelly 1978, p. 90). The threefold formula can also be found in early eucharistic prayers.
    Kelly observes that the Apostolic Fathers "appear as witnesses to the traditional faith rather than interpreters striving to understand it" (Kelly 1978, p. 90). Though they make few explanations, they assert theological stances which reflect a trinitarian point of view. A specific defense of the trinitarian theology is lacking, very likely because it was not the issue being addressed in the conflicts or explanations at hand. Kelly describes a number of these writings.
    In contrast to the Apostolic Fathers, the second century Apologists made specific attempts to defend doctrinal points of view (Kelly 1978, p. 95). Their monotheism was clear. In general, they tried to deal with the pre-existent and pre-incarnate Son by means of a category of Christ as the mind of the Father. This is a reasonable use of the Logos as described in John as well as in Philo (Kelly 1978, p. 96). Kelly illustrates these discussions particularly in the work of Justin. He then goes on to describe, in turn, Tatian (Kelly 1978, p. 98), Theophilus of Antioch (Kelly 1978, p. 99), and Athenagoras. Kelly notes that the Apologists are not systematic theologians. They use "the Father" for the unified Godhead. They use "the Son" not as the preincarnate Son, but as he becomes evident in the incarnation (Kelly 1978, p. 100). He goes on to say, "they lacked a technical vocabulary adequate for describing eternal distinctions within the Deity; but that they apprehended such distinctions admits of no doubt" (Kelly 1978, p. 101).
    The Apologists were focused on the nature of Christ in the Godhead. For this reason, Kelly observes they did not systematically build a case for the Trinity (Kelly 1978, p. 101). However, their discussion of the Godhead routinely fell into triads, indicating a Trinitarian point of view in the Church. At times, the apologists will make statements about the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and will use language of distinction in order. However, Kelly thinks this does not refer to subordination but rather to a distinction of operations (Kelly 1978, pp. 104-105). Kelly describes this in some detail. At its root, this view shows the persons of the Trinity all to be divine but to work in different ways. It also affirms that all the persons are equally one God.

​
0 Comments

Matthew's Gospel - Chapter Twenty-Seven

5/7/2025

0 Comments

 
Matthew's Gospel - Chapter Twenty-Seven

Keep working on learning where to look for different things in Matthew's Gospel. In chapter Twenty-Six Jesus is arrested and tried.

Write down at least three questions you hope will be answered.

Read Albrecht's commentary on Matthew, pages 404-434.

See if you have any more questions or answers.

Questions for Study and Discussion:

Matthew 27:1-10 shows Judas' regret that his betrayal of Jesus to the chief priests had actually led to a death sentence for Jesus. Consider especially his interaction with the chief priests and their response to him. How are Christians supposed to deal with a confession of sin?

Consider the interview Jesus has with Pilate, the governor, in Matthew 27:11-26. From the text of Matthew, try to understand Pilate's opinions and actions. Ask yourself who is in charge of the events described here. How does this compare to the description in John's Gospel chapters 18 and 19?

In verses 27-44, Jesus is mocked, in turn, by soldiers including an execution squad, by fellow prisoners, and by Jewish leaders. Would you expect this? Why or why not?

Was it necessary for Jesus to remain on the cross until he died? Why or why not?

What is unusual about the darkness described in Matthew 27:45-49? Consider the suggestions that it was an eclipse.

As you did with Jesus' hearing before Pilate, consider who is in charge of the events during the crucifixion itself. Compare these events to those depicted in the first half of Psalm 22.

As Jesus dies (Matthew 27:50), a number of other signs happen. What might God be showing us through Matthew's description in verses 51-53? Note that there is debate particularly about which curtain was torn and what it signified. The nature of the resurrection of people from the tombs is also uncertain.

Matthew 27:54-56 makes it clear there were a number of witnesses present at the death of Jesus. How are they and their reactions important?

As we conclude the chapter, what is the controversy about Jesus' tomb and its security? What are people's expectations?

​
0 Comments

Poetry, Music, and an Entirely New Poetic Paradigm

5/6/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
5/6/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VIII. Christian Art." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2269-2327). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 102-116).

"§115. The Latin Hymn." (pp. 2312-2315).
    Latin hymnody is more important in the Middle Ages than Greek hymnody. Schaff finds it to lead more directly toward the music of Protestantism (Schaff 2014, p. 2312). In Schaff's opinion, much of the best of the Latin hymnody has been naturalized into Protestant use. Orthodox Christianity, notably represented by Hilary and Ambrose, used hymnody to defend against heretical doctrines.
    Schaff also considers the Christian hymnody to have moved customs of Latin poetry from an emphasis on meter based on length of syllable to meter based on stress accent, as well as, at least occasionally, on rhyme (Schaff 2014, p. 2313). This moved the poetry more into a musical direction, in his opinion, in popular usage, particularly by the twelfth and thirteenth centuries (Schaff 2014, p. 2314). In this time we also begin to see descriptions and classifications of meters as used in Latin hymnody (Schaff 2014, p. 2315).

"§116. The Latin Poets and Hymns." (pp. 2315-2326).
    Schaff illustrates the growth of Latin hymnody by briefly discussing a number of writers and their more prominent compositions. He does observe that all were significant theologians as well (Schaff 2014, p. 2316). Schaff provides substantial samples of texts, in Latin and English, illustrating the development of Latin usage through the period.
    We can observe that the Latin texts Schaff reproduces show stress rather than metrical predictability, though he does not point out the elisions which clarify the stress. To gain a clear picture it is necessary to compare the metric scansion of lines to the location of stress accents. The stress accents are not always on long syllables, though they often are. Melodic practices, rather than a plain chant, show themselves after the time of Ambrose, leading toward recognizable chorale type melodies (Schaff 2014, p. 2320).
    Schaff describes a groundbreaking development in the work of Venantius fortunatus, who died about 600. He developed the use of the trochaic tetrameter, which is the staple of hymnody from the medieval period onward (Schaff 2014, p. 2322). Again, a comparison of the rhythmic meter to the stress accent meter is required to get a clear picture of the development. Of particular note is Fortunatus' grouping of poetic lines into stanzas. This has remained a common practice to the current time.
    For those who are not familiar with this poetic meter, I observe the longs and shorts, which then became the stressed and unstressed syllables, using dots and dashes.
  ._ ._ ._ ._ //
  ._ ._ ._ ._ //
  ._ ._ ._ ._ //
  ._ ._ ._ ._ //
    A typical stanza of four such lines can be found in much later Latin hymnody. With little, if any, variation, the meter is perfectly normal for use in English, as well as other Western languages. In its typical four line stanzas, most hymnals will indicate it as "CM" for "Common Meter."

​
0 Comments

Scripture - recognized, not imposed

5/1/2025

0 Comments

 
Tuesday Scholarly Notes
5/1/25

Kelly, J.N.D. (1978). "Chapter 3: The Scriptures." in Early Christian Doctrines, Revised Edition." (pp. 52-79). Harper San Francisco. (Personal Library)
    Kelly notes that by the apostolic period, though the collection was not articulated as such, the Old Testament was agreed upon by Jews, and was quickly recognized by most Christians as their authoritative works as well (Kelly 1978, p. 52). The early Christians seem to have used the Septuagint including what we would now consider the Apocrypha rather than the more restricted Masoretic Text (Kelly 1978, p.
54).  The Apocrypha were less favorably received in the East than in the West. By the fourth century those works were regularly removed from readings in the East. In the West, in most settings, they were included as Scripture (Kelly 1978, p. 55).
    New Testament writings were recognized as Scripture at a very early period. Kelly cites Marcion, the second century heretic, as being the person who compelled Christians to make formal lists of what works belonged to a New Testament (Kelly 1978, p. 57). Kelly, evaluating this activity, notes that there is evidence of some recognized corpus of the New Testament prior to Marcion (Kelly 1978, p. 58). In any case, Marcion's rejection of some writings suggests a known collection from which some parts could be rejected. Kelly notes that the first actual list we have of our current New Testament works comes from Athanasius in 367, and that there was still ongoing debate about the contents into the sixth century (Kelly 1978, p. 60).
    Kelly notes that Christianity adopted a view of inspiration of Scripture from Judaism and quickly applied it to the New Testament writings as well as the Old (Kelly 1978, p. 61). The nature of inspiration as understood by the patristic authors was generally that the writers were taken into an ecstatic state and had little or no control of how they wrote what they did (Kelly 1978, p. 62). After the rise of Montanism, however, Christian interpreters tended to assign more personal care and consciousness to the biblical authors (Kelly 1978, p. 63).
    Issues of biblical interpretation were of considerable importance in early Christianity. In particular, the relationship of the Old and New Testaments was a matter of discussion (Kelly 1978, p. 64). A key interpretive element is seen in the canonical gospels as Chrsit and the evangelists treat the Old Testament as a Christian book, describing the Messiah (Kelly 1978, p. 65). This, then, is the pattern found in Acts and the epistles. A similar interpretation can be found in the post-apostolic authors as well. At times the interpretation of the Old Testament's symbolic references to Christ becomes more allegorical than most modern Chrsitians would like. Kelly describes a passage in the epistle of Barnabas (as interpreted by C.H. Dodd According to the Scriptures 1952, p. 9) in which Abraham's 318 servants show Christ. The Greek number 18 is IH, a common abbreviation of "Jesus." The number 300 is T, which looks like a cross (Kelly 1978, p. 66). Kelly goes on to note that such allegorical readings were not universal. There is a harmony between the Old and New Testaments. However, in general, the New Testament came to be seen as making the implications of the Old Testament more clear.
    Typology and allegory are terms normally used to describe interpretive methods. Kelly suggests avoiding the term "allegory" as it is understood differently now than it was in the patristic period (Kelly 1978, p. 70). In allegory, the details of a narrative itself play a relatively unimportant role, as they intend to symbolize other spiritual truths. The exegete's job is to identify these spiritual truths and explain them. In contrast to allegorical reading, typological readings interpret the Old Testament events as prefiguring or anticipating those in the New Testament (Kelly 1978, p. 71). The historical context of a type was important in determining its fulfillment, or antitype.
    Kelly observes that while typological exegesis became very normal within Christian teaching, allegorical exegesis was problematic. This is particularly the case in dealing with Marcionism and the various Gnostic movements, as they could pick and choose allegorical symbols to prove whatever they wished (Kelly 1978, p. 72). Allegorical interpretation was used in orthodox ways, particularly in Alexandria. However, it opened interpretive doors which could prove problematic (Kelly 1978, p. 73).
    Kelly refers finally to a reaction against allegorical exegesis of every sort. This reaction was centered in Antioch during the fourth and fifth centuries (Kelly 1978, p. 75). These interpreters maintained that an adequate understanding of the text would be based on the facts of the text rather than a symbolic understanding of letters or numbers within the text. This emphasis led to typological interpretations but a rejection of allegory (Kelly 1978, p. 76). Symbolic language could be accepted as symbolic, but the Scriptures are normally located in literal times and events.

​
0 Comments

Poetry and Music in Early Christianity

4/29/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
4/29/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VIII. Christian Art." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2269-2327). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 102-116).

"§113. Church Poetry and Music." (pp. 2302-2305).
    Schaff observes the more important role of poetry and music when compared with art and architecture (Schaff 2014, p. 2303). The expression of specific tenets of Christianity in a clearly articulated and memorable verbal medium is of critical importance. The devotional nature of hymnody was therefore crucial in the life of Christians (Schaff 2014, p. 2304).
    Schaff notes early Christian use of the Psalms, as well as the apparent use of other, newly composed texts, some of which are quoted in the epistles (Schaff 2014, p. 2304). However, we have no known examples of the complete text of an early Christian song (Schaff 2014, p. 2305).

"§114. The Poetry of the Oriental Church." (pp. 2305-2312).
    As referenced above, Schaff observes we have no complete hymn texts from the first few centuries in the East, with the exception of the Te Deum and the Gloria in Excelsis (Schaff 2014, p. 2305). Orthodoxy may have been hesitant to use hymnody extensively due to the misuse of it within Gnostic and other heretical circles (Schaff 2014, p. 2306). In the fourth and fifth centuries Schaff notes conciliar resolutions against the use of such hymnody. In the late fourth century, however, numerous hymns were introduced, especially in Syrian regions (Schaff 2014, p. 2307). The sixth century saw broad acceptance of new songs in Greek territories.
    Schaff describes this Greek hymnody in some detail (Schaff 2014, p. 23080. Historic Greek meters were quickly rejected, with the type of metrical structure found in Hebrew Poetry being favored. The forms of appropriate songs took on a regularity, thoguh the forms are more complex than recent Western Protestant hymnody. Both Greek and Latin hymnody of the period can be found in collections such as the Greek Menaea and the Latin Breviary (Schaff 2014, p. 2309). 

0 Comments

Tradition, Then Scripture

4/24/2025

0 Comments

 
Tuesday Scholarly Notes
4/24/25

Kelly, J.N.D. (1978). "Chapter Two: Tradition and Scripture." in Early Christian Doctrines, Revised Edition." (pp. 29-51). Harper San Francisco. (Personal Library)
    The question of the source of Christian doctrine is an important one, in Kelly's estimation. At some point, probably by the end of the first century, principles to interpret writings and practices became evident. otherwise, it would not have been possible to distinguish between orthodoxy and heresy (Kelly 1978, p.29). In his evaluation, Kelly considers the salient factors to be Scripture and Tradition. There was a clear identification of the authoritative apostolic writings as well as a known and continuous flow of traditional interpretation at a fairly early time (Kelly 1978, p.30). Kelly emphasizes that tradition as understood by the church fathers referred to the authoritative delivery of interpretations, something which would not be separated from and placed in opposition to Scripture.
    Kelly's investigation into the interplay of Scripture and tradition focuses on the period up to the middle of the second century, when canonical Scripture and doctrinal orthodoxy can be seen as relatively well established (Kelly 1978, p.31). During this period, the Old Testament was recognized by Christians as a Christian book, testifying to the person and work of Christ (Kelly 1978, p.32). The exegetical practices which led to this conclusion were likewise accepted as normative. The methodology used can be traced to the apostolic witness, thus placing it as part and parcel of the Christian tradition. Kelly cites numerous examples of church fathers identifying the authority of the interpretive methods of the apostles. In Kelly's view, the early Church did not consider this authority to be limited to apostolic documents. Rather, the documents may well have been accepted because they were consistent with the interpretive models which came from the apostolic period (Kelly 1978, p.33). The "preaching, liturgical action and catechetical instruction" may well have carried as much weight as the documents of the New Testament (Kelly 1978, p.34).
    As the ideas of gnosticism gained traction, Kelly observes that the distinctions between orthodoxy and gnosticism became more clear (Kelly 1978, p.35). Representatives of orthodoxy increasingly pointed to apostolic ideas. Meanwhile, purveyors of gnosticism made reference or claims to possessing secret apostolic gnosis. Kelly particularly notes this as shown in the writings of Irenaeus and Tertullian. Their claims, counter to gnosticism, were centered on a body of interpretive tradition derived from known apostolic teaching. Kelly describes Irenaeus' understanding of tradition as "'the canon of the truth.' Byu this he meant, as his frequent allusions to and citations from it prove, a condensed summary, fluid in its wording but fixed in content, setting out the key-points of the Christian revelation in the form of a rule" (Kelly 1978, p.37). The New Testament Scriptures, in Irenaeus' view, serve as a subsequent commitment of this teaching, produced in writing (Kelly 1978, p.38). The written documents then could be used as a reference to weigh the tradition which had previously been delivered to the Church (Kelly 1978, p.39).
    The understanding of the interplay of Scripture and Tradition described in the second century above became further entrenched in the Church during the third and fourth centuries (Kelly 1978, p.41). Kelly notes two changes. First, as Gnosticism lost influence, authors became less involved in articulating doctrines on the basis of apostolic tradition, preferring to use the Scripture as authoritative documents. At the same time, interpretations of the content of tradition tended to become broader (Kelly 1978, p.341). Yet Kelly observes that works such as Hippolytus' Apostolic tradition still affirmed practice which was derived from the earliest days of Christianity and which cannot be found in the same terms within the New Testament (Kelly 1978, p.44). Kelly provides multiple examples of third and fourth century authors alleging that heretical interpretations of the New Testament could not have been made if the heretics had rightly understood the historic traditions (Kelly 1978, p.44-48).
    By the fifth century, Kelly finds the practice of reference to past orthodoxy in order to clarify interpretation of Scripture or practices to become increasingly common (Kelly 1978, p.48). Teachers of the past were viewed as sources of authoritative interpretation. Kelly observes, though, that these past luminaries were not considered authoritative on their own, but by token of their rightly understanding both Scripture and tradition (Kelly 1978, p.49). This, I note, allows for embracing the sola scriptura of the Reformation.

0 Comments

Matthew's Gospel - Chapter Twenty-Six

4/22/2025

0 Comments

 
Matthew's Gospel - Chapter Twenty-Six

Keep working on learning where to look for different things in Matthew's Gospel. In chapter Twenty-Five gives parables about preparedness, ability, and care for others.

Write down at least three questions you hope will be answered.

Read Albrecht's commentary on Matthew, pages 371-404.

See if you have any more questions or answers.

Questions for Study and Discussion:

Matthew 26:2 has an identification of time, two days before the Passover, so Tuesday of Holy Week. The Jewish leaders at this time are determined to get rid of Jesus.

Verses 6-13 describe Jesus being anointed by a woman in Bethany. What does this action say about giving expensive gifts? What was the woman accomplishing?

Verses 14-16 describe Judas' arrangement to betray Jesus. Consider his incentive to do this.

Verses 17-25 describe preparations for Passover. The conversation turns to Jesus' upcoming betrayal. What is significant about the preparations? Consider also the interpersonal dynamic in verses 24-25.

The institution of the Lord's Supper is found in Matthew 26:26-30. Consider the way Christians have normally received communion, using almost identical words and actions, every Sunday. What does it give you?

Verses 31-35 predict Peter's denial of Jesus. Trace through the rest of this chapter and chapter 27 to see how Peter's rejection of Jesus progresses. Especially compare Jesus and his disciples in 26:36-46, then see them scattered afterward. Then return to Peter's actions in 26:69-74.

Verses 47-56 describe Jesus' arrest. In what ways does Jesus seem to be in charge of what happens? In what ways does he seem to be a victim of others?

Verses 57-68 describe Jesus' hearing before the Jewish authorities. What seems odd about the hearing?

​
0 Comments

Early Christian Graphic Representative Arts

4/22/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
4/22/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VIII. Christian Art." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2269-2327). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 102-116).

"§110. Images of Christ." (pp. 2290-2298).
    Schaff observes that the architecture of the Jewish temple made it clear that careful architecture was appropriate for Christians. however, painting and sculpture was less clear based on the second commandment (Lutherans and Roman Catholics  would include this in the first commandment.) (Schaff 2014, p. 2291). Images of Christ were controversial. They could signal idolatry within a pagan culture. Representations of Christ are first seen among Gnostics and other heretical groups, and may well have served as objects of adoration. They are first found in orthodix settings after the time of Constantine, when the victorious Lord is depicted in heavenly glory (Schaff 2014, p. 2292).
    Schaff observes a dispute about such artistic representations of Christ. Some rejected representative art in general, though more often rejecting images of Chrsit (Schaff 2014, p. 2293). This view can be seen expressed clearly in the writings of Eusebius. He llowed for symbolic representations, such as a good shepherd or Daniel among the lions. Others would not accept any of these pieces of art. On the other side of the debate were those who considered artistic representations of ideas and people as helpful in devotions, especially among those who did not read (Schaff 2014, p. 2294). In the East, sculpture was never embraced, while it was more accepted, though with hesitation, in the West. Painting tended to be widely accepted, especially as an aid in teaching. The Cappadocial Fathers in the fourth century embraced artistic representations of the apostles, prophets, and other biblical characters (Schaff 2014, p. 2295). Schaff cites numerous authors who expressed opinions on these matters.
    Schaff notes two different types of paintings of Christ. Some would depict Jesus as the calm, dignified, and gentle Jesus (Schaff 2014, p. 2297). These anticipate the representations by Raphael and Michelangelo. The second type of depictions focus on Jesus' sufferings, especially with his crown of thorns.


"§111. Images of Madonna and Saints." (pp. 2298-2301).
    In addition to representations of Jesus, it was common for artists to depict other characters in the Bible (Schaff 2014, p. 2298). Mary, the Magi, the evangelists, the Apostles, and others, including people from Christian history, would often be depicted. The Madonna was frequently portrayed, especially as "the ideal of female beauty, purity, and lovliness, and as resembling her divine Son" (Schaff 2014, p. 2299). Book manuscripts, homes, and even vestments were often decorated with such pictures. Actual reverence for the works of art developed in the sixth century, and was criticized by leaders such as Augustine.
    Schaff considers these works of art to be uncompelling as art, but recognizes that they played an important role in the devotion and the discussion of the Church (Schaff 2014, p. 2300).

"§112. Consecrated Gifts." (pp. 2301-2302).
    Schaff briefly describes the custom among pagans of making gifts to be stored in temples (Schaff 2014, p. 2301). At times apparently Jews would place important items in a shrine. This was also a known practice among Chrsitians particularly following the time of Constantine. Schaff describes several such offerings.

​
0 Comments

Pre-Existing Influences on Early Christian Doctrine

4/17/2025

0 Comments

 
Thursday Scholarly Notes
4/17/25

Kelly, J.N.D. (1978). "Chapter I: The Background." in Early Christian Doctrines, Revised Edition." (pp. 3-28). Harper San Francisco. (Personal Library)

    Kelly's goal is to review doctrinal development from the end of the first century to the mid-fifth century (Kelly 1978, p. 3). The close of the first century marks the start of subapostolic development. The council of Chalcedon in 451 may well end this period of doctrinal creativity. Many issues central to Christianity were largely settled by this time.
    During the patristic period, Kelly sees a strong influence on Christianity coming from Judaism (Kelly 1978, p. 6). Especially at the start of the period, nearly all frameworks for thought were adapted from the world of Judaism. Kelly considers the two most important concepts to be the divine nature as consisting of separate persons but one nature, as well as the interest shown to angels (Kelly 1978, p. 7). Kelly notes that Philo of Alexandria and his interpretation of Platonic conceptions of deity had a profound influence on biblical interpretation, particularly on allegorical interpretations which could harmonize elements of philosophy and theology (Kelly 1978, p. 8). The concept of a logos, held as a creative and explanatory force, was prominent in Plato (Kelly 1978, p. 10). The connection between the divine logos and Plato's forms then becomes an important matter of consideration.
    The Roman Empire considered its classical religions to be significant. For this reason, Christianity arose in the context of a culturally religious atmosphere. Kelly observes that the Roman paganism had lost much of its practical power by the patristic period, but still was a source of cultural unification (Kelly 1978, p. 11). The rise of mystery religions with ceremonial meals and worship served as competitors of one another and of Christianity, also seen as an exotic, new religion (Kelly 1978, pp. 12-13).
    Greek philosophy, particularly Platonism and Stoicism, was influential, particularly among the educated elite (Kelly 1978, pp. 14-15). Particularly the Platonic theory of the non-sensible Forms was easily seen as analogous to a biblical concept of God. Kelly briefly summarizes Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic concepts which could influence Christian thought (Kelly 1978, pp. 16-20, passim). Kelly's synopsis of the philosophical viewpoints is particularly helpful as he makes brief mention by name of philosophers who emphasized particular concepts.
    Neoplatonism was characterized by a strong emphasis on the transcendence of God (Kelly 1978, pp. 20-21). These ideas, flourishing after about 200 A.D., could be interpreted as similar to Christian conception, especially regarding the persons of the Godhead. However, in significant ways, an interpretation of Christianity in Neo-Platonic terms leads directly to Gnosticism (Kelly 1978, p. 22).
    The various Gnostic groups were syncretistic in nature, drawing from a wide variety of sources, but always emphasizing the need for a sort of arcane knowledge (gnosis) which would lead to truth (Kelly 1978, p. 23). They typically articulated multiple levels of aeons, which served essentially as a pantheon. Some Gnostics have more affinity to orthodox Christianity than others. However, the entire system is deeply contradictory to Christianity (Kelly 1978, p. 26).

0 Comments

Matthew's Gospel - Chapter Twenty-Five

4/16/2025

0 Comments

 
Matthew's Gospel - Chapter Twenty-Five

Keep working on learning where to look for different things in Matthew's Gospel. In chapter Twenty-Four Jesus predicts the destruction of the temple.

Write down at least three questions you hope will be answered.

Read Albrecht's commentary on Matthew, pages 356-370.

See if you have any more questions or answers.

Questions for Study and Discussion:

Consider Matthew 25:1-13, the parable of the wise and foolish virgins. The parable speaks of a coming judgment in which the wise and foolish are separated. How do the details of the actions describe life in general? What does the passage say about coming judgment?

Verses 14-30 describe the work of the disciple of Christ in terms of a servant who has been entrusted with money to care for in the master's absence. How does God provide us with what we need to do his work? How do we use the resources he has provided? Consider stewardship of both time and money.

Verses 31-46 are a parable of final judgment. In the last day, Jesus will separate his disciples who are faithful from those who are not faithful. Consider the distinctions between the two groups and their treatment.

​
0 Comments

Byzantine Style, Baptisteries, and Crosses

4/15/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
4/15/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VIII. Christian Art." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2269-2327). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 102-116).

"§107. The Byzantine Style. (pp. 2283-2286).
    In about the sixth century, Schaff notes a growth of Byzantine architectural style. This was used in the West as a modification to basilica styles. In the East it replaced basilica style and became well enough rooted to remain in use to the present. The style is characterized by a "hemispherical dome . . . supported by massive columns" (Schaff 2014, p. 2284). Attention is thus drawn upward and to the center, rather than to the quarter sphere at the liturgical east as in the basilica. The basilica draws attention to the altar, while the Byzantine style draws attention to heaven above the center of the congregation. It is common for the main dome to be surrounded by four smaller domes (Schaff 2014, p. 2285). Schaff describes the Hagia Sophia as an outstanding example of the form (Schaff 2014, pp. 2285-2286). While the form was developed in the sixth century, modifications to basilicas in the West were not common until the ninth century and afterward.

"§108. Baptisteries, Grave-Chapels, and Crypts." (pp. 2286-2288).
    The construction of special buildings for baptism began in the fourth century, with acceptance of Christianity as a licit religion (Schaff 2014, p. 2287). Baptism by immersion was still common at this time, and there were often many candidates for baptism, which was typically performed four times per year. The structure of a baptistery was generally round and under a dome. Several steps went down into the water. Normally the structure was divided into a side for each sex.
    "After the sixth century, when the baptism of adults had become rare, it became customary to place a baptismal basin in the porch of the church, or in the church itself, at the left of the entrance" (Schaff 2014, p. 2288). This became typical in parish churches as pastors, rather than only bishops, became engaged in baptizing people. 

"§109. Crosses and Crucifixes." (pp. 2288-2290).
    Use of crosses and the sign of the cross dates back at least to the second century (Schaff 2014, p. 2289). Schaff observes that the use of a cross could and did often become a matter of superstition, bringing criticism upon Christians as early as the time of Tertullian. This is not surprising, yet it is unfortunate. Schaff notes that about the sixth century we begin to see crosses with a figure of Christ or a lamb attached to them (Schaff 2014, p. 2290). Eventually in the East three-dimensional figures of Chrsit were banned, though pictures were allowed. Other people were sometimes added to artistic representations of a cross, such as Mary or others who were present at the death of Jesus. 

​
0 Comments

Matthew 28 - Life in the Resurrection

4/10/2025

0 Comments

 
New Testament Studies
4/10/25

Gibbs, Jeffrey A. (2018). "Matthew 28" In Matthew 21:1-28:20. (pages 1596-1659). St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. (Personal Library)

"Matthew 28:1-10 The Promise Kept with One to God: Jesus Is Raised and Will Go to Galilee." (pp. 1596-1613).
    Matthew 28:1-10 describes the first post-resurrection events. Jesus moves from the dead to showing himself as very much alive. After extensive grammatical and textual notes, Gibbs notes that these verses easily divide into three parts (Gibbs 2018, p. 1603). First, the angel opens the tomb. Second, the angel tells the women not to fear. Third, Jesus appears to the women and sends them on their way with the message of resurrection.
    In Matthew 28:1, the women had gone to visit Jesus' grave. They had no expectation of finding Jesus alive (Gibbs 2018, p. 1604). Yet not only was there an earthquake, but they met an angel of God who caused the earthquake. Gibbs notes the multiple uses of ἰδοῦ (behold) in this passage. Something worth watching was happening. Not only has the angel removed the stone blocking the entrance to the tomb, but he has also frightened the soldiers so they could do nothing to guard the tomb (Gibbs 2018, p. 1606).
    The angel reminds the women not to fear. This is because Jesus is risen, in accord with his promise (Gibbs 2018, p. 1607). For this reason, the women are to go and tell the disciples that Jesus will keep another promise, that of appearing to them in Galilee (Gibbs 2018, p. 1608). Gibbs observes that this promise was made in Matthew 26:31-32. In the context, the disciples were all denying that they would fall away. Now, in chapter 28, Jesus will gather his scattered sheep again.
    To cap off the work of the angel, in Matthew 28:8-10 Jesus himself appears to the women while they go to the disciples (Gibbs 2018, p. 1609). The women were moved to worship Jesus. Their move to grab Jesus' feet testifies to a real physical presence, counter to Gnostic views that Jesus only seemed human (Gibbs 2018, p. 1610). It is significant, in Gibbs' estimation, that when Jesus repeats the call for the women to go to the disciples he calls them "my brothers" (28:10_ (Gibbs 2018, p. 1611). This serves as an affirmation that they can be reconciled to Jesus. It also suggests that they have a mission like his, to proclaim the Gospel (Gibbs 2018, p. 1612). It finally draws attention from the start of Psalm 22, referenced several times in chapter 27, to the later part of Psalm 22, which speaks of brothers and victory. Gibbs will unpack this further in his comments about Matthew 28:16-20 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1612). 

"Matthew 28:11-15 The Reign of Heaven Will Continue to Suffer, Even in Light of Easter." (pp. 1614-1620).
    In his notes regarding the text of Matthew 28:11-15, Gibbs observes the strong parallels between chapters 27 and 28 (Gibbs 2018, pp. 1614-1617). The soldiers, having recovered from their encounter with the angel, report what has happened to the high priest (Gibbs 2018, p. 1617). Gibbs briefly speculates about the content of the report from the soldiers. While we have no clear information about it, we can assume they reported the angelic encounter and the fact that Jesus was no longer in the tomb (Gibbs 2018, p. 1618). The most reasonable story to spread was that the soldiers fell asleep and the disciples stole the body. Gibbs notes the soldiers must have received a lot of money from the religious leaders, as sleeping on duty was a serious offense.

"Matthew 28:16-20 The Risen Jesus Assures, Sends, and Accompanies His Israel in Mission to All the Gentiles/Nations." (pp. 1621-1649).
    Matthew brings his Gospel account to an end by discussing the final earthly appearance of Jesus to his remaining eleven disciples. After extensive grammatical notes, Gibbs specifies that his commentary here will reference Matthew's Gospel as an independent source rather than making an attempt to harmonize the various topics as recorded in all four canonical Gospels (Gibbs 2018, p. 1628). In brief outline, he considers the passage to center on the identity of Jesus, the identity of the Eleven, and the identity of the Gentiles/nations.
    Matthew 28:16 describes Jesus appearing to his disciples in Galilee. Gibbs sees Galilee as the particular place of revelation of Jesus, as well as of reconciliation (Gibbs 2018, p. 1629). It is in Galilee that much of Jesus' ministry has centered. From Galilee is the place where the light of God will shine to all the world. Verse 17 shows the Eleven worshiping Jesus, now reconciled to him after they fell away. Yet some of the Eleven still had doubts. Gibbs considers the text to refer here still to the Eleven rather than referring to others, not of the Eleven (Gibbs 2018, p. 1630).
    Gibbs considers that, according to Matthew, jesus has fulfilled all things, including, as foreshadowed in Matthew 28:10, completing the second half of Psalm 22, where the Psalmist sparks of a proclamation to "my brothers" (Ps. 22:23) (Gibbs 2018, p. 1632). Gibbs describes a number of ways in which the final sentences of Jesus in Matthew's Gospel connect to the second portion of Psalm 22. 
    Gibbs sees the appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee as a reference to Daniel chapter seven, as Jesus is presented as the glorious Son of Man (Gibbs 2018, p. 1633). He is further presented as the Son of God, a clearly divine identity (Gibbs 2018, p. 1634). Gibbs notes the singular divine name Jesus shares with the Father and the Holy Spirit. As with other themes in Matthew, Gibbs considers the names used of Jesus throughout Matthew are now more clearly understood as part of the divine name. Gibbs takes this to be a means by which Jesus' various claims of his identity are finally vindicated (Gibbs 2018, p. 1637). He is fully shown as the Lord of all, the fulfillment of God's promises to the world.
    Gibbs takes Matthew 28:16-20 to also show definitively who the Eleven disciples are in their restoration to Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1638). Matthew has earlier established the special nature of Jesus' work through them. They have a special authority and special tasks (Gibbs 2018, p. 1639). In a way they represent the different tribes of Israel, as Jesus represents Israel in one person. Gibbs then sees the disciples as a start of the Church. However, he cannot say they serve as a replacement of Israel. Rather, he contends that the disciples serve for the Church as the patriarchs did for Israel (Gibbs 2018, p. 1640). Jesus is the fulfillment, rather than the replacement, for Israel.
    The command Jesus gives to his disciples in Matthew 28:19 is to make disciples. This remains the mission of the Church (Gibbs 2018, p. 1640). They do this by baptizing and teaching, with the promised presence of Jesus. Gibbs emphasizes that "ultimately the work of making disciples is rooted in [Jesus'] authority to save" (Gibbs 2018, p. 1641). It is decidedly not an authority held by the disciples. Jesus' summary of how they are to make disciples is that they do it baptizing and teaching others. The baptizing is specifically trinitarian in nature (Gibbs 2018, p. 1642). This brings people into a participation with God as Jesus has shown throughout Matthew. They are associated with Jesus' death and resurrection (Gibbs 2018, p. 1643). The command to make disciples was given to the Eleven. However, Gibbs is clear that work continues to belong to the whole Church in every age. Those are the people who have been made into disciples (Gibbs 2018, p. 1645). Gibbs takes the mission of Matthew 28:19-20 to be incumbent on those who are pastors, but that it also applies to other Christians. All God's people are to evangelize (Gibbs 2018, p. 1646). Yet pastors are uniquely involved in the process.
    Verse 19 also refers to the people who are evangelized and taught, the "Gentiles," or the "nations" (Gibbs 2018, p. 1647). However, Gibbs maintains that ethnic Israel is always to be included in proclamations of the Gospel (Gibbs 2018, p. 1648). All the people of the world are to be baptized and taught.

"Excursus: The Resurrection of Jesus in Matthew's Gospel and in the New Testament." (pp. 1650-1659).
    Gibbs writes this brief excursus after his thoroughgoing commentary on Matthew' Gospel because, in his opinion, much of Western Christianity has emphasized the death of Jesus with scarce consideration of his resurrection (Gibbs 2018, p. 1650). Without the resurrection, the story remains incomplete. And Gibbs finds that whenever the word εὐαγγέλιον (Gospel) is used in Matthew it always is related to events involved in the reign of Jesus, something which takes place in the resurrection (Gibbs 2018, p. 1652). Jesus not only predicts his death, but also his resurrection.
    Gibbs reviews a number of passages within Matthew in which it becomes clear that it is necessary that Jesus be raised. The final judgment, in particular, cannot happen until the time of resurrection (Gibbs 2018, p. 1652). It is particularly clear from Jesus' use of texts from Psalms that the resurrection is critical to God's plan (Gibbs 2018, p. 1653). Of great importance in Gibbs' thought is the process by which, in Matthew 27, Jesus makes a cry of dereliction, then is raised from the dead to be received to heaven in Matthew 28 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1656). The cycle of dereliction and reconciliation is central to the work of redemption.

​
0 Comments

Matthew's Gospel - Chapter Twenty-Four

4/8/2025

0 Comments

 
Matthew's Gospel - Chapter Twenty-Four

Keep working on learning where to look for different things in Matthew's Gospel. In chapter Twenty-Three Jesus condemns the actions of the Pharisees.

Write down at least three questions you hope will be answered.

Read Albrecht's commentary on Matthew, pages 337-356.

See if you have any more questions or answers.

Questions for Study and Discussion:

In Matthew 24:1-3 the disciples wonder at the impressive temple. in the end, Jesus says even that will be destroyed. What are some things you think of as permanent? What if they are destroyed?

Verses 4-8 show some signs that the end of the world may be near. What is our response to this news? What of Jesus' statement that it is just the beginning?

Verses 9-14 speak of cultural changes. What is our response? How do we prepare for a time like this?

In verses 15-25 the picture grows darker. How are we to respond to such trials?

Verses 26-31 speak of both deception and the return of Jesus. Is there any danger of not noticing his return? 

Signs point to some different reality. What do the signs in Matthew 24 point to?

How do we live as people who expect the Lord's return?

​
0 Comments

Consecration and Arrangement of Churches

4/8/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
4/8/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VIII. Christian Art." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2269-2327). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 102-116).

"§104. The Consecrating of Churches." (pp. 2274-2275).
    During our period, church buildings began to be consecrated with considerable ceremony, setting them aside specifically for Christian services (Schaff 2014, p. 2274). Schaff notes that biblical warrant for church consecrations was drawn from the ceremonies surrounding the consecration of the temple. With the newfound permissions for Christianity to be practiced in public, the ceremonies would often be well attended.
    Churches could be dedicated to the Trinity, to a member of the godhead, or often to a notable figure such as an apostle or Mary (Schaff 2014, p. 2274). They would also frequently observe anniversaries of the consecration. Within the ecclesiology of the time, consecrated and unconsecrated buildings alike would be recognized as places for Christian worship and fellowship (Schaff 2014, p. 2275).

"§105. Interior Arrangement of Churches." (pp. 2275-2280).
    Christian churches often had a physical arrangement reminiscent of the temple in Jerusalem (Schaff 2014, p. 2275). They often had three divisions: the place for catechumens, the faithful, and priests (Schaff 2014, p. 2276). The concept of a priesthood between the average people and God was universally present. Normally there would be an outer and inner portico. The outer was open and not considered part of the church. It would be the place of "those under heavy penance" (Schaff 2014, p. 2276), and would include a laver, where people entering would engage in a ceremonial washing. 
    The inner portico, a covered area, could accommodate those who were unbaptized (Schaff 2014, p. 2276). From here the preaching could be heard. A mural of Adam and Eve was frequently found here.
    The nave of the church symbolized the ark of safety (Schaff 2014, p. 2277). Men would be on the south side, women on the north, or in elevated galleries. The pulpit would be about at the center of the nave, while the custom of an epistle desk at the north and a gospel desk at the south developed. The sermon could be delivered from the pulpit or the steps at the east (Schaff 2014, p. 2278). A choir would be placed to the east of the pulpit, but the west of the altar steps.
    A more elevated place, also known as the choir, was the place of the altar, where the priests alone would enter to consecrate the eucharist (Schaff 2014, p. 2278). It was set apart by rails or a lattice and a curtain. Here there was the altar and a dome-shaped canopy. The altar normally contained relics or the burial place of a martyr. A small tabernacle would house the consecrated host (Schaff 2014, p. 2279). Side altars were developed later, and only in the west.

"§106. Architectural Style. The Basilicas." (pp. 2280-2283).
    The architecture of basilicas, gradually becoming Gothic cathedrals, took elements from various cultures, influenced by the Jewish temple (Schaff 2014, p. 2281). Because pagan temples tended to be round and not conducive to the kind of gatherings used in Christian worship, their architectural elements were not normally adopted. Christianity preferred long rectangles, often with some side naves added on. External porticoes and colonnades could be used for other purposes. Rather than the public judicial hall, the raised place of a tribune became a place for an altar (Schaff 2014, p. 2282). The side naves caused the building to take on the shape of a cross. Towers for bells arrived about the ninth century. Schaff describes a number of ancient church buildings in brief.

​
0 Comments

Wittenberg Door's Tenth Anniversary

4/7/2025

3 Comments

 
Greetings from Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry!

We are reaching a milestone at Wittenberg Door as we approach the ten year mark from our official founding in June of 2015. It's been a good time! Over the years we've managed to lose count of how many people we've welcomed to the campuses of Columbia, MO. We are pretty sure that our dinner and conversation evenings have had representatives of about 25 different nations. And we know for certain that every last person we have worked with in our Bible discussions, times of prayer, coaching in English conversation, driving lessons, and transporting around Columbia is someone who was created as an image-bearer of God for for whom Christ gave himself. The focus of all we do is Christ crucified for us and risen to deliver a promise of eternal life.

Since we began hosting the dinner and conversation evenings around 2017, they have proven to be an important way of building relationships among our participants, and especially with people in our international community, who are far from home and family. For this reason, we want to celebrate this tenth anniversary of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry at one of our dinners.

I must apologize that the time is short. Our celebration dinner will be on Friday, April 25, our last such gathering of this academic year. Please come and join us at the Spotts' home, from 6-8 pm on the 25th. RSVP to Pastor Spotts via email ([email protected]) or text (573-355-0347) by the end of Monday, April 21. We want to be sure everything's in order for this special time.

​
3 Comments

Matthew 27, Part 2 - Jesus Is Executed

4/3/2025

0 Comments

 
New Testament Studies
4/3/25

Gibbs, Jeffrey A. (2018). "Matthew 27" (part 2) In Matthew 21:1-28:20. (pages 1490-1595). St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. (Personal Library)

"Matthew 27:27-38 Rome Has Its Way and God's Will Is Done: The King Goes to the Cross." (pp. 1537-1550).
    Gibbs finds in this passage a three part illustration of the work of Roman power to mock Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1541). He further observes that the actual crucifixion is not given substantial space in the text.
    First, Jesus is mocked in the Praetorium by a group of soldiers (Gibbs 2018, p. 1541). Though the group of soldiers would have been large, Gibbs observes such an activity may not have been surprising in its time. These soldiers evidently knew of the charge that Jesus was king of the Jews. Therefore, they mock him as one would a false king (Gibbs 2018, p. 1542). Gibbs finds that the actions of making requests of him and seeking him out as king of the Jews were used genuinely elsewhere in Matthew's Gospel. Here, however, the actions are used to mock him.
    As Matthew's narrative continues in 27:32-34, Jesus moves from the praetorium to the place of execution, Golgotha, "place of a skull" (Gibbs 2018, p. 1542). While Gibbs notes we could ask questions about Simon and his work carrying at least some portion of the cross, he considers the absence of Jesus' disciples to be a more important matter (Gibbs 2018, p. 1543). All the disciples had promised to be with Jesus. At this point, none was found, to the extent that there were no followers at all.
    Finally, in Matthew 27:35-38, Jesus, now helpless, is displayed in his crucifixion (Gibbs 2018, p. 1543). There is a strong allusion to Psalm 22 in verse 35. Other allusions can be found in verses 39, 43, and 46 v(Gibbs 2018, p. 1544). A charge is placed above Jesus' head, which serves as an indicator of the shape of the cross. To a Roman, the one identified as King of the Jews would be seen as treasonous. Matthew is very likely emphasizing the paradoxical nature of God's greatness which suffers and serves others.
    Gibbs continues with a brief discursus summarizing recent research about crucifixion (Gibbs 2018, p. 1545). Suspending a body for public display was nothing new in the first century AD. There is evidence for doing this before death or after death (Gibbs 2018, p. 1546). In the first century BC and the first century AD, the practice in the region was generally to suspend someone in a way which would bring death, then to leave the body on display. Often, the texts we have do not make it entirely clear what the other details are. Gibbs notes that one could be tied or nailed to a vertical post or something in the shape of a cross (Gibbs 2018, p. 1547). Death could be caused by asphyxiation, though there could be other causes of death. In the Roman world, it was considered a shameful way to die, so was taken very seriously. However, people other than slaves could be executed in this way, and people of low classes could be executed in other ways (Gibbs 2018, p. 1548). 
    In the final analysis, it is plain that, regardless of the specific details, Jesus died a painful and humiliating death, probably stripped of all his clothing. He was made a spectacle for all onlookers (Gibbs 2018, p. 1550).

"Matthew 27:39-56 The Son of God Dies: What Does This Mean?" (pp. 1551-1585).
    Matthew 27:39-56 describes one of the most difficult events ever interpreted. The one who has been identified as God in the flesh dies. Various signs accompany his death (Gibbs 2018, p. 1551). Gibbs provides substantial textual notes, frequently also referring to concepts which are unpacked in the commentary section. The passage divides into three segments (Gibbs 2018, p. 1561), Verses 39-44 show Jesus being identified correctly, though mockingly, by hostile witnesses. In verses 45-50 Jesus directly identifies himself as the Son of God (Gibbs 2018, p. 1562). Finally, in verses 51-56 a number of apocalyptic signs proclaim the effect of Jesus' death.
    As noted above, Matthew 27:39-44 shows a number of people mocking Jesus, thus mocking the actual work of God. This Gibbs considers blasphemy (Gibbs 2018, p. 1562). The mockers fail to recognize Jesus' actual claims or his authority to accomplish God's will (Gibbs 2018, p. 1563). Similarities to Jesus' temptation in the wilderness (4:1-11) can be drawn. Neither Satan nor the onlookers at the crucifixion recognize Jesus' work of laying down his authority. Jesus is not intent on saving himself, but rather works salvation for his followers (Gibbs 2018, p. 1564). Ironically, this is even recognized in some of the mocking. In 27:42 the mockers acknowledge that Jesus saves others (Gibbs 2018, p. 1565).
    Gibbs observes the connections previously made to Psalm 22. In Matthew 27:45-50 Jesus himself makes reference to Psalm 22, interpreted by onlookers as an invocation of Elijah (Gibbs 2018, p. 1566). As things progressed, there was darkness at midday, which would be readily recognized by onlookers as a sign from heaven. Then, in midafternoon, Jesus quotes the start of Psalm 22. Gibbs observes that this is carefully brought in to a setting where the Psalm had been alluded to already several times (Gibbs 2018, p. 1567). In a very real way, Jesus is claiming the abandonment of God to which David had referred. Here, in the case of Jesus' abandonment, it is used to work salvation for the world. Gibbs reflects on a number of other passages from Jesus' baptism on in which his actions and statements make complete sense in light of his surrender as a vicarious representative of humanity. Then, without commentary, Matthew records in 27:50 that Jesus died (Gibbs 2018, p. 1568).
    Gibbs considers the question raised in Matthew 27:46 as to whether Jesus recited the whole of Psalm 22 or simply the opening verse (Gibbs 2018, p. 1569). It is certainly possible that the opening verse would prompt onlookers to recall the entire Psalm. Considering the tone of victory at the end of the Psalm, some have suggested the intention of the quotation is to be a shout of victory. Gibbs considers this a weak theory. Not every citation or allusion to the Old Testament found in the New Testament brings a large amount of context with it. Further, all the allusions to Psalm 22 found in this part of Matthew 27 are to the early part of the Psalm, where it describes a lack of victory (Gibbs 2018, p. 1570). Third, the statement of Jesus is one of defeat. He is forsaken by God (Gibbs 2018, p. 1571). Gibbs suggests we should understand Matthew 27 as describing the affliction, rather than the victory of Christ. As readers, Matthew provides us with references to the portion of Psalm 22 which depicts defeat. It is only later in Matthew 28, that the victory is shown. Gibbs observes that Matthew 28:9-10, when Jesus sends the two Marys to his disciples, there is an allusion to verse 23 of Psalm 22 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1572). This completes the cycle of Christ's humiliation and exaltation.
    At the death of Jesus, in Matthew 27:51-56, signs in earth, heaven, and possibly hell speak to the work of Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1573). The curtain of the temple is torn from top to bottom. This event has been variously interpreted as God departing from the temple either as a sign of judgment or a sign that Christ has completed the needed sacrifice. A further challenge is the fact that there were several veils in the temple (Gibbs 2018, p. 1574).
    Gibbs evaluates the mention of the veil in some detail. Matthew has not prepared his readers with discussion of the veil or the separation of the holy place and the most holy place (Gibbs 2018, p. 1576). However, he has referred to the temple area and to the sanctuary in it at several points (Gibbs 2018, p. 1577). There have been numerous references to the coming destruction of the temple area and its buildings. This suggests to Gibbs that the tearing of the curtain is a partial destruction of the temple as an act of judgment against the temple authorities. They deserve judgment due to their rejection of the Messiah (Gibbs 2018, p. 1578).
    The raising of the dead, recorded in Matthew 27:52-53, requires careful interpretation (Gibbs 2018, p. 1579). Gibbs takes the description as historic, rather than symbolic and metaphysical, largely because it has none of the introduction that we find in Matthew 24:29-31. The timing of the event is not clear. Gibbs suggests that it was likely begun at the time of the earthquake at Jesus' death (Gibbs 2018, p. 1581).
    In the final analysis, Jesus' death has begun the time of the end. The signs recorded in Matthew 27 describe Jesus' actions moving toward the resurrection of the dead and the final judgment (Gibbs 2018, p. (Gibbs 2018, p0. 1582-1583). Matthew 27 further illustrates the fact that Jesus' work is recognized only by the least likely witnesses, the centurion and some women. This recognition by the least likely witnesses has been a theme throughout Matthew's Gospel (Gibbs 2018, p. 1584).

"Matthew 27:57-66 At Pilate's Command, Jesus Is Entombed by Friend and Foe." (pp. 1586-1595).
    Gibbs briefly explains his choice to treat Matthew 27:57-66 together due to parallelisms in the two segments of five verses and due to the time reference given for each part (Gibbs 2018, p. 1590). New characters are introduced and an appeal to Roman authority is made. Finally, the presence of women who have been with Jesus and are witnesses of the events tie the narrative together (Gibbs 2018, p. 1591). Gibbs notes that none of the participants have any expectation that Jesus will be alive again.
    It is clear in Matthew 27:62 that Pilate still retains authority over Jesus' body. In no way does Matthew minimize his responsibility (Gibbs 2018, p. 1591). On the afternoon of Jesus' death, Joseph of Arimathea needed permission to entomb Jesus. It appears, given Pilate's agreement to all the proposals, that he did not consider Jesus a serious threat to public order (Gibbs 2018, p. 1592).
    Gibbs observes that the respect shown by Joseph of Arimathea is a generous gift. It included not only preparations for burial but also a new tomb (Gibbs 2018, p. 1593). 
    The chief priests and Pharisees, remembering the claim that Jesus would rise after three days, sought a way to guard against theft of the body (Gibbs 2018, p. 1594). After all, they considered Jesus to be a deceiver. There is no hint that they expect a resurrection, but only a grave robbery. Gibbs observes that the disciples had fled and would be powerless to attempt anything. At the same time, sealing the stone and posting guards would prove utterly insufficient to stop God's plan of resurrection (Gibbs 2018, p. 1595).

​
0 Comments

Early Christian Art and Architecture

4/1/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
4/1/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VIII. Christian Art." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2269-2327). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 102-116).

"§102. Religion and Art." (pp. 2269-2271).
    Schaff observes that in rightly identifying the world in terms of truth, beauty, and goodness, the aesthetic elements of life belong in religion as much as any other sphere of consideration (Schaff 2014, p. 2269). For this reason, the mission of art is perfected in worship of God. The elements of beauty are created by God and serve to proclaim his praise (Schaff 2014, p. 2270).
    Early Christianity struggled with art. In Schaff's opinion, this was because of the connection they perceived between art and idolatry (Schaff 2014, p. 2270). Eventually, much of Christianity reached the conclusion that the arts could be turned to godly purposes as well as to idolatry.

"§103. Church Architecture." (pp. 2271-2274).
    Architecture, in Schaff's opinion, finds its highest purpose as it is used to prepare a place for the human and divine to meet (Schaff 2014, p. 2271). The earliest Christians had no particular buildings for worship, but not due to a neglect of architecture. Rather, they were generally oppressed and had to gather relatively privately (Schaff 2014, p. 2272). There are some traces of church buildings in the later part of the third century, then again after 312 after Constantine allowed the church itself to have property (Schaff 2014, p. 2272). The fourth century saw a tremendous surge in church construction. In many instances high government officials, including emperors, had churches built at personal or state expense. In some instances pagan "temples or other public buildings were transformed for Christian worship" (Schaff 2014, p. 2273). However, the pagan temples tended to be round and not spacious due to their particular use. They did not adapt well to a gathering for corporate worship, preaching, and prayer.

​
0 Comments

Newsletter for Lent 2025

3/27/2025

0 Comments

 
Get the latest Wittenberg Door Newsletter for Lent 2025 here.
Newsletter for Lent 2025
0 Comments

Matthew 27, part 1 - apparent chaos

3/27/2025

0 Comments

 
New Testament Studies
3/27/25

Gibbs, Jeffrey A. (2018). "Matthew 27" (part 1) In Matthew 21:1-28:20. (pages 1490-1595). St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. (Personal Library)

"Matthew 27:1-2 Jesus Is Transferred to Pilate." (pp. 1490-1492).
    Gibbs takes Jesus' hearing as a preliminary action, which required the Jewish leaders to exercise caution in the way they would present Jesus to Pilate (Gibbs 2018, p. 1491). For this reason, they "took counsel" (27:1) about the best way to arrange for Jesus' death at the hands of the Romans. We realize that while the Sanhedrin instigated Jesus' death, he was executed by the order of Pontius Pilate.

"Matthew 27:3-10 Indifference to Despair: The Chief Priests and Judas." (pp. 1493-1513).
    Matthew 27:3-10 describes Judas' despair, his return of the money given to him for betraying Jesus, his death, and the move of the chief priests to purchase a burial place. Gibbs provides extensive notes on the text and grammar (Gibbs 2018, pp. 1493-1499). He then goes on to observe that "Judas . . . serves as a contrast with the chief priests and elders, and the unit primarily says something about them and their actions" (Gibbs 2018, p. 1499). They are shown as intent on having Jesus executed.
    In Matthew 27:3-5, Judas is described in terms of repentance, as he returns the silver he had been paid to the chief priests, and as he made confession of sin (Gibbs 2018, p. 1500). He was, however, not absolved, but was rather rejected by them, provoking him to suicide. At the same time that Jesus is being taken to provide forgiveness for the world, the chief priests refuse forgiveness for a penitent sinner (Gibbs 2018, p. 1501).
    Matthew 27:6-8 demonstrates the failure of the chief priests to understand purity. They decide to take defiled money, the price of blood, which was thrown into the temple, thus defiling the temple, and purchase a plot of land which would be used to bury foreigners (Gibbs 2018, p. 1502). This land would be considered impure both due to the presence of foreigners and due to its use for burial. They failed to understand the grace and forgiveness available in Christ.
    In Matthew 27:9-10, Gibbs finds that Matthew has deliberately connected Zechariah 11 and Jeremiah 19 with a fulfillment in the work of Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1503). The prophecy speaks to divine judgment coming upon those who would reject the prophetic work of the one chosen as Israel's shepherd. Here Jesus is shown as the antitype, or fulfillment, of the shepherd in Zechariah 11 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1504). The connection of Jeremiah would be very easy to overlook without Matthew's specific reference. However, the connection does show in the concept of innocent blood and a potter (Gibbs 2018, p. 1505). This also brings the connection of judgment against Jerusalem into prominence (Gibbs 2018, p. 1506). 
    Gibbs makes application of Matthew 27:3-10 by observing that God's plan to redeem the world cannot be stopped even by evil such as that of the chief priests and Judas (Gibbs 2018, p. 1506). The sin rooted in the opponents' lives is to be seen as terrible and destructive to themselves and others. Yet it is incapable of stopping Jesus, who alone provides the forgiveness and restoration needed by sinners (Gibbs 2018, p. 1507). Gibbs further observes that, at this point in the narrative, there is no substantial difference between Judas and Peter. Both have fallen away. Neither is, in any real way, a disciple of Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1508). The disciples have all fallen away. This is without exception, including both Peter and Judas (Gibbs 2018, p. 1509). Gibbs finds this highly significant for our understanding that there is nothing in us which makes us naturally turn to Jesus. Rather, Jesus comes and finds us when we are spiritually hopeless (Gibbs 2018, p. 1511).

"Matthew 27:11-26 Pilate Condemns Jesus to Death by Crucifixion." (pp. 1514-1536).
    Gibbs provides detailed grammatical notes for Matthew 27:1-26. The narrative has numerous grammatical irregularities, possibly emphasizing the tumultuous events of Jesus' presentation to Pilate and Pilate's eventual sentencing of Jesus.
    Gibbs reviews the identity of Pontius Pilate briefly, observing that we know with certainty only two of the three Roman names of Pilate, lacking his praenomen, though some legends suggest it was Lucius (Gibbs 2018, p. 1521). He likely served as prefect of Judea and Samaria from AD 26-36 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1522). He was portrayed negatively by both Philo and Josephus, though Gibbs is quick to remind readers that they were hostile witnesses (Gibbs 2018, p. 1522). Pilate held considerable power and influence as prefect. The length of his time in office and the coins minted during his tenure suggest that he was not intent on causing a mass revolt among the Palestinian Jews (Gibbs 2018, p. 1523).
    The interview of Jesus with Pilate would not have required any particular procedure or interaction with Roman law, since Jesus was almost certainly not a Roman citizen (Gibbs 2018, p. 1525). Pilate was free to hear the issue or not, and to act based on his own understanding of the case. Just the same, as the Roman prefect, he would have needed to bear in mind both Roman interests and enough of the Jewish interests to prevent a local rebellion. In Matthew 27:11-26, then, Pilate interprets the accusation against Jesus, and does so with little assistance of witnesses or legal precedent.
    The difficulty presented to Pilate in Matthew 27:11-14 is that Jesus, presented to him, chooses not to respond. Gibbs observes that Jesus' assent to Pilate's question, "You are saying" (so), is not a denial but also fails to be a strong affirmation (Gibbs 2018, p. 1527). Jesus' silence afterward makes the interview more difficult, rather than clarifying matters. In verses 15-23, then, Gibbs takes Pilate to be turning some elements of his judgment over to the Jews, possibly so as to insure his future relationships with the Jewish leaders.
    The custom of releasing a prisoner at this time cannot be found outside of the canonical Gospels (Gibbs 2018, p. 1527). In Gibbs' estimation, Pilate's suggestion of releasing Barabbas may have served as a test of how dangerous the Sanhedrin actually thought Jesus was (Gibbs 2018, p. 1528). Pilate specifically refers to Jesus as the one called the Christ, or the Messiah. Gibbs, with many others, finds Matthew's report about Pilate's wife and her dream to be cryptic. He briefly entertains the possibility of this as a divine revelation as were the other instances of dreams recorded in Matthew (Gibbs 2018, pp. 1527-1528). This could certainly lead Pilate to his opinion of Jesus' innocence. Gibbs notes that there is no inherent inconsistency about God's plan that Jesus would be executed and his issuing warnings. He also knows that his warning will not be heeded (Gibbs 2018, p. 1528). If, however, the dream is not intended to relate this incident with others in Matthew, it could simply serve as yet another demonstration that Pilate would remain guilty in his decision to have Jesus executed (Gibbs 2018, p. 1529). Regardless, the outcry of the crowd is described as forceful. Pilate ultimately concedes to them and condemns Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1530).
    Gibbs sums up the decision of Pilate, "As is so often the case with political decisions, both ancient and modern, power and compromise take precedence over truth or justice" (Gibbs 2018, p. 1531). Though Pilate washes his hands and proclaims his own innocence, Jesus remains the one who is genuinely innocent. The crowds, and "all the people," ask that Jesus' blood should be upon them. Gibbs explores the interpretation of this call (Gibbs 2018, p. 1532). Pilate cannot possibly be innocent of the blood of Jesus. As prefect, he is responsible. Likewise, Gibbs takes the call of the people as ineffective from the standpoint of calling a curse down on themselves (Gibbs 2018, p. 1533). They have no understanding of who Jesus is or what he is doing. Rather, their response illustrates the theme, common in Matthew, that all Israel stands guilty before God (Gibbs 2018, p. 1534). They will be displayed as guilty before God as the people of Jerusalem face persecution at the hands of the Romans, culminating with the sacking of the city in the year 70 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1534). Gibbs finally notes the irony that this incident and Pilate's decision does shed the blood of Jesus, which proves salvific.

0 Comments

Western Liturgies and Vestments

3/25/2025

0 Comments

 

Church History
3/25/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VII. Public Worship and Religious Customs and Ceremonies." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2124-2268). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 74-101).

"§100. The Occidental Liturgies." (pp. 2263-2266).
    Schaff classifies western liturgies as having their sources in Ephesus, with the influence of John; in Rome, with the influence of Peter; or "the Ambrosian and Aquileian, which is a mixture of the other two" (Schaff 2014, p. 2263). Over time, the Roman liturgy came to prominence and the others were eclipsed.
    The old liturgies in Gaul showed an influence of the Ephesian liturgy. Liturgies in Britain and Spain show similar influences. African liturgies show signs of Roman origin (Schaff 2014, p. 2264).
    Ambrosian liturgy is used in Milan, and has survived at least to Schaff's time in the 19th century (Schaff 2014, p. 2265). A related group, from the patriarchate of Aquileia, was long used.
    Roman liturgy is more widely documented than other families (Schaff 2014, p. 2265). While it claims roots in the apostle Peter, the liturgy can be clearly traced as far back as the fifth century. Documentation in the various sacramentaries is clear. Schaff summarizes the history of a number of sacramentaries.

"§101. Liturgical Vestments." (pp. 2266-2268).
    Public worship, particularly with the sharp distinction of clergy and laity, was characterized by particular types of vestments (Schaff 2014, p. 2266). Schaff provides a list of particular liturgical garments used in Greek tradition, then those from Latin tradition, all with explanatory footnotes. We observe that the garments were often specific to various ranks of clergy, as well as to particular liturgical actions. Schaff observes that the use of special priestly garments originated in the Old Testament (Schaff 2014, p. 2267). Various colors developed over time to be appropriate for different seasons or celebrations, though the basic color white remained. Schaff considers that the specific garments for the priesthood probably became common after the sixth century (Schaff 2014, p. 2268).

​
0 Comments

Eastern Liturgies Prior to the 5th Century

3/18/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
3/18/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VII. Public Worship and Religious Customs and Ceremonies." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2124-2268). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 74-101).

"§99. The Oriental Liturgies." (pp. 2259-2263).
    The liturgies for which we have written record, though there are many, in Schaff's opinion fit into five or six families of tradition, stemming from churches in Jerusalem, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Rome (Schaff 2014, p. 2259). He observes that the east showed a greater tolerance for variety in liturgies than the west.
    A complete service order, probably from the early fourth century, is found in the Apostolic Constitutions book eight, ascribed wrongly to Clement of Rome (Schaff 2014, p. 2259). Because of similarities to the liturgies of St. James and Cyril of Jerusalem, Schaff classifies it as a Jerusalem liturgy (Schaff 2014, p. 2260). Schaff describes it in brief, then compares it to the liturgy of St. James.
    This, though it bears the name of a first century apostle, quotes the Nicene Creed from the fourth century. The liturgy is quoted by Cyril of Jerusalem, prior to 386 (Schaff 2014, p. 2261). Schaff notes a Syriac version of the liturgy of St. James which serves as a sources for numerous Monyphysite liturgies.
    An Alexandrian liturgy is ascribed to the evangelist Mark, though Schaff observes it reproduces the Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed dating to 381 (Schaff 2014, p. 2261). Schaff thinks it more likely stems from Cyril of Alexandria, who died in 444. A Coptic version was used in Egypt until the 12th century.
    Schaff describes a liturgy which is tied to Edessa or Mesopotamia (Schaff 2014, p. 2262). This is sometimes described as a liturgy of "All Apostles" and was used only by Nestorians.
    From Constantinople, Schaff finds a liturgy descended from that of James. This version of the liturgy, in one form or another, is used in Greek and Russian orthodox churches (Schaff 2014, p. 2262). Schaff sees this as a living liturgy which has continued to gain some accretions.

0 Comments

Liturgies in Jerusalem and other eastern parts

3/18/2025

0 Comments

 
Church History
3/18/25

Schaff, Philip. (2014). "Chapter VII. Public Worship and Religious Customs and Ceremonies." In  History of the Christian Church. (The Complete Eight Volumes in One). Volume 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600, from Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great. (pp. 2124-2268). (Original work published 1889).  Amazon Kindle Edition. (Personal Library). (sections 74-101).

"§99. The Oriental Liturgies." (pp. 2259-2263).
    The liturgies for which we have written record, though there are many, in Schaff's opinion fit into five or six families of tradition, stemming from churches in Jerusalem, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Rome (Schaff 2014, p. 2259). He observes that the east showed a greater tolerance for variety in liturgies than the west.
    A complete service order, probably from the early fourth century, is found in the Apostolic Constitutions book eight, ascribed wrongly to Clement of Rome (Schaff 2014, p. 2259). Because of similarities to the liturgies of St. James and Cyril of Jerusalem, Schaff classifies it as a Jerusalem liturgy (Schaff 2014, p. 2260). Schaff describes it in brief, then compares it to the liturgy of St. James.
    This, though it bears the name of a first century apostle, quotes the Nicene Creed from the fourth century. The liturgy is quoted by Cyril of Jerusalem, prior to 386 (Schaff 2014, p. 2261). Schaff notes a Syriac version of the liturgy of St. James which serves as a source for numerous Monyphysite liturgies.
    An Alexandrian liturgy is ascribed to the evangelist Mark, though Schaff observes it reproduces the Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed dating to 381 (Schaff 2014, p. 2261). Schaff thinks it more likely stems from Cyril of Alexandria, who died in 444. A Coptic version was used in Egypt until the 12th century.
    Schaff describes a liturgy which is tied to Edessa or Mesopotamia (Schaff 2014, p. 2262). This is sometimes described as a liturgy of "All Apostles" and was used only by Nestorians.
    From Constantinople, Schaff finds a liturgy descended from that of James. This version of the liturgy, in one form or another, is used in Greek and Russian orthodox churches (Schaff 2014, p. 2262). Schaff sees this as a living liturgy which has continued to gain some accretions.

​
0 Comments

Jesus Goes to Trial

3/13/2025

0 Comments

 
New Testament Studies
3/13/25

Gibbs, Jeffrey A. (2018). "Matthew 26" (part 2) In Matthew 21:1-28:20. (pages 1310-1364). St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. (Personal Library)

"Matthew 26:36-46 The Perfect Son Prays and the Father's Will Is Done." (pp. 1426-1442).
    Gibbs notes that Matthew 26:36-46 uses a number of historical present verbs. The only other passage which uses many is Matthew 4:1-11 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1426). While Gibbs makes no strong conclusion as to a particular narrative purpose, he does think the two passages are intended to show vivid intensity (Gibbs 2018, p. 1427).
    In Matthew 26:36-38 Jesus enters the garden with his disciples, who have all insisted that they would remain with him. While three remain with Jesus as he moves farther into the garden, Gibbs points out they also are not there for the same purpose as Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1432). While Jesus prays for his disciples, he never asks them to pray for him. Rather, he warns them of the coming temptation. This is one of the few places in Matthew where Jesus' emotional life comes to the surface of the narrative (Gibbs 2018, p. 1433). Jesus clearly expresses extreme sorrow, though it is not entirely clear which of the troubles at hand is predominant in his thought. Despite the sorrow, Jesus continues his mission.
    In verses 39-44, then, Jesus prays as his disciples fail to do his will. It is significant that Jesus prays in essentially the same manner three times, and that there is somewhat of a time marker in Matthew 26:40, where he refers to "one hour" (Gibbs 2018, p. 1434). This suggests a fairly literal amount of time. In any case, it was late enough and long enough that the disciples fell asleep, a form of falling away.
    Jesus' prayer is summarized in Matthew 26:39, 42, and 44. He addresses God the Father and asks that the cup would pass from him, if possible. Gibbs observes that Jesus has known this plan all along. The "if possible" expresses a desire, but one which Jesus knows is not possible (Gibbs 2018, p. 1435). Jesus further affirms that his desire is to do the desire of the Father. The grief is real, as is the commitment. Gibbs reflects briefly on the nature of "this cup" which Jesus would like to avoid. The imagery of bitter death predominates throughout the Old Testament (Gibbs 2018, p. 1436). Gibbs concludes that, though the cup Jesus gives his disciples in the Last Supper is full of his death, it does not have the bitter element of the cup of suffering Jesus drinks.
    The failure of the disciples while Jesus prays is recorded in Matthew 26:40, 41, 43, and 45. Even as Jesus prays three times, the disciples fail to watch or pray, but rather they sleep (Gibbs 2018, p. 1437). The disciples are in great danger of temptation, which Jesus knows will cause them to stumble.
    Matthew 26:45-46 moves from Jesus' prayers into the fearful events he has been praying about. The disciples have been sleeping but now is the time of their temptation (Gibbs 2018, p. 1438). Jesus is given into the hands of sinners (v. 45), though it is part of his divine plan.
    Gibbs discusses Matthew 26:36-46 as a passage which makes significant Christological statements (Gibbs 2018, p. 1439). He followed a difficult path, one which his disciples could not follow. He is shown as the one who obeys the Father perfectly. He exercises his reign as the Son of David in ways we will never understand (Gibbs 2018, p. 1440). Above all, Gibbs finds this text to illustrate the uniqueness of Jesus. He is unlike any of his disciples (Gibbs 2018, p. 1441).

"Matthew 26:47-56 Two Plans, a Common Goal: Jesus Is Arrested." (pp. 1443-1457).
    Gibbs makes substantial textual comments on Matthew 26:47-56 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1443-1448). The passage detailing Jesus' betrayal and arrest is intricately composed. Furthermore, Matthew uses vocabulary and style which emphasize the critical tension of the scene. In this passage, the culmination of God's ancient plan is nearing as Jesus is bringing the start of his eschatological reign to the present (Gibbs 2018, p. 1449). Gibbs particularly notes the element of time in Matthew 26:36-46. We have recently seen mention of praying for hours. Now the time has come and all is prepared for Jesus' arrest.
    The events at the end of Matthew 26 point up the fact that there are two different plans involving Jesus' arrest. In God's plan, Jesus is being taken so as to die for mankind's sin. In the plan of the Jewish leaders, the one threatening their power is being taken out of the way. Jesus rejects the attempts of his disciples to rescue him from arrest (Gibbs 2018, p. 1450).
    In Matthew 26:47-48 it becomes clear that the plan Judas had made with the Jewish authorities was intricately worked out. They had a substantial arresting force, knew their destination, and had a means of identifying Jesus, even at night (Gibbs 2018, p. 1450). While Gibbs notes that the size of the arresting force is undetermined, and I agree, I think it is worth noting that in John's account, the term used is normally applied to a military force of about 600 people.
    In verses 49-50, Judas greets Jesus with a kiss, calling him "Rabbi." Gibbs observes that we have little knowledge of the typical dynamics involving rabbis and their disciples at this time, nor of any special habits that Jesus and his disciples may have had. Gibbs does, however, note that Matthew's readers would catch the significance of Judas calling Jesus "Rabbi" rather than "Lord," and may have seen some significance of Jesus calling Judas "friend" in return (Gibbs 2018, p. 1451). Jesus is accepting of the arrest. Gibbs again observes that the divine and human plans agree in that Jesus must be arrested and must die (Gibbs 2018, p. 1452).
    Matthew 26:51-54 describes an attempt to interfere with the plan to arrest Jesus. A disciple attacks a slave of the high priest. Gibbs suggests that this person may have held a position of authority or leadership, thus putting him into the place he would be a target (Gibbs 2018, p. 1452). The disciple, in all probability, was trying to kill the slave, but only wounded him. Gibbs theorizes that the disciple with the sword probably had no good plan to stop the arrest. However, he didn't accept the concept that Jesus was supposed to be arrested (Gibbs 2018, p. 1453). Jesus' action, by which he rebukes the disciple and rejects the use of force to establish God's reign is striking to Gibbs. There is no suggestion that there was a retaliation against the disciple. Jesus shows himself to be able to govern the entire incident. Gibbs continues with a substantial reflection on the futility of human means (force and violence) which intend to establish God's reign (Gibbs 2018, p. 1454ff). The kingdom belongs to God and will be established by his means and in his time.
    The arrest of Jesus concludes with Jesus addressing the crowds in Matthew 26:55-56 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1456). Jesus speaks to the contradiction inherent in the way he is being arrested. If he were a danger to society, he would have been arrested easily, by day, as he was engaged in teaching in public. This arrest was not for that reason. Rather, it is indicative of Jesus being treated as a persecuted prophet.

"Matthew 26:57-68 In the Face of Danger, Part 1: Faithful Jesus before the Sanhedrin." (pp. 1458-1480).
    In Matthew 26:57-68 Jesus is taken away for trial before the Sanhedrin, a court of Jewish elders (Gibbs 2018, p. 1458). Gibbs notes that in this passage, as compared with earlier passages, Jesus' conflict is no longer with relatively anonymous religious leaders. Here he is taken to a particular council, the Sanhedrin, which has assembled specifically to see that Jesus is killed (Gibbs 2018, p. 1462).
    Gibbs briefly reviews what we know about the Sanhedrin at this time in history (Gibbs 2018, p. 1463). It was a body which had both religious and civil functions, and was at the time a single group, though in more recent history there is evidence that there may have been two such groups. At least at this time the high priest could preside (Gibbs 2018, p. 1464). The council did not have authority to execute people without Roman permission. Gibbs observes that there was likely division within the Sanhedrin about the nature of Jesus and the charges against him. Particularly, when Matthew says (26:59) that the court was seeking false witnesses, at least some of the court was probably seeking reliable and accurate testimony, but that the testimony they would accept was colored by a lack of trust in Jesus' claims to be the Messiah (Gibbs 2018, p. 1465).
    When compared with records of Jewish council procedure from approximately AD 200, the examination of Jesus does not align well (Gibbs 2018, p. 1465). We do not know what the accepted procedure was for a capital case around AD 30. Yet the hearing is deficient in numerous areas. It was held at night, there is no attempt to demonstrate innocence, it is on the eve of a Sabbath, and the verdict occurs on the same day. All this violates process as described later, about AD 200 in the Mishna (Gibbs 2018, p. 1466). Gibbs observes that the contradiction can be explained in various ways, but that his leaning is to consider that this was not a capital trial. If the hearing was intended either to gather information prior to a trial, or if it was intended to collect evidence which would be presented to a Roman court, the procedures would not be as important (Gibbs 2018, p. 1467). In fact, the council has difficulty reaching a verdict, only gaining consensus when Jesus replies to Caiaphas in verses 63-64.
    Gibbs takes Matthew's shift of focus in 26:57-58 as highly significant. After all the disciples fled, Peter followed Jesus, though at a distance (Gibbs 2018, p. 1469). It may suggest that Peter has not fallen away, or it may suggest that Peter has also failed to be faithful in staying with Jesus. The juxtaposition of the various elements is highly significant. After placing Peter in the courtyard, Matthew makes no more mention of him until verse 69. The contrast, therefore, is not between Peter and the other disciples, but between Peter and Jesus.
    The hearing of Jesus, meanwhile, is unable to make much headway due to the inadequate witnesses and Jesus' own refusal to speak (Gibbs 2018, p. 1470). In the end, two witnesses did agree, though there is no evidence for its truth, that Jesus had said he would tear down the temple and rebuild it in three days. Jesus' failure to respond to this charge still hindered the progress of the hearing. Gibbs observes that the charges against Jesus still do not rise to the level of a capital crime. However, for a referral to Pilate, the Sanhedrin needed some allegation that Jesus would cause civil unrest. This charge would rise to that level in Roman thought (Gibbs 2018, p. 1471). Eventually, Caiaphas pursued the task of clarifying Jesus' identity as the Messiah, asking him directly (Gibbs 2018, p. 1472). Jesus' response is an affirmative, but one which presses the reader to realize that Caiaphas has identified him as the Messiah. He then continues with words which speak to his divine authority (Gibbs 2018, p. 1473). This assures everyone that he will be condemned to death. From this point the mystery will only grow. Gibbs notes that Jesus would have to be alive to do the apocalyptic signs promised. His death should be expected to put an end to all that he taught (Gibbs 2018, p. 1474). The fulfillment, then, begins not immediately but only four days later, with the resurrection (Gibbs 2018, p. 1475). Jesus is accordingly condemned with a charge of blasphemy, worthy of death in the understanding of the Sanhedrin. Gibbs moves on with a discursus considering the various types of words and actions which would constitute blasphemy at this time (Gibbs 2018, p. 1476ff).

"Matthew 26:69-75 In the Face of Danger, Part 2: Faithless Peter before the Bystanders." (pp. 1481-1489).
    Matthew 26:69-75 turns our attention from Jesus, who has been faithful in all things, to Peter, who will prove unfaithful (Gibbs 2018, p. 1481). It is particularly significant to Gibbs that Peter had specifically boasted of his faithfulness in contrast to the other disciples. Gibbs cites 2 Corinthians 12:9 and 1 Corinthians 10:12 as Pauline statements about exactly what happens in this passage (Gibbs 2018, p. 1484). Peter trusted his own strength, the very thing which led to his desertion of Jesus. The structure of the passage rather clearly shows three denials of Jesus, with Peter's departure from the courtyard as the final stroke (Gibbs 2018, p. 1485). In the first encounter it becomes apparent that Peter had been with Jesus. However, based on his interaction it is no longer clear that he presently is with Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1485).
    After the first denial, Peter moved farther away, to the gate of the courtyard, a move which Gibbs sees as indicating his departure from Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1486). Here, the accusation is that Peter was formerly with Jesus, who here is described as a Nazarene, a typical cultural slur. Peter insists that he does not know Jesus, whom he calls "the man" (Gibbs 2018, p. 1487).
    Finally, people standing around think Peter was one of the disciples. Gibbs notes the irony that the disciples, of whom Peter was often the standout, had fled. Now Peter has also forsaken Jesus. He is one of them. Peter has not only rejected Jesus, but now he rejects the other disciples, with oaths (Gibbs 2018, p. 1488). His rejection is complete by the time he hears the rooster, which reminds him of Jesus' earlier words.

​
0 Comments

Matthew 26, Part 1

3/6/2025

0 Comments

 
New Testament Studies
3/6/25

Gibbs, Jeffrey A. (2018). "Matthew 26" (part 1) In Matthew 21:1-28:20. (pages 1310-1364). St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. (Personal Library)

"Matthew 26:1-5 Two Plans, One Divine Will: Introduction to the Passion Narrative." (pp. 1365-1372).
    Matthew 26:1 marks the transition from Matthew's fourth discourse (24:1-26:1) into his fifth discourse, the Passion Narrative, in 26:1-27:66 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1365). Gibbs particularly observes the slight change in the formula Matthew uses at the end of discourses. Here, "Jesus completed all these words," where previously the "all" was omitted (Gibbs 2018, p. 1368). From this point there is less speech. Rather, the attention centers on Jesus' action. Matthew deliberately juxtaposes Jesus' words to his disciples at this point with the plan made by the chief priests and elders. Both plans are laid out at the start of chapter 26 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1369). Gibbs observes that while the plan of the chief priests to arrest Jesus in secret, not during the festival, and to avoid a riot fails in all points. Jesus' plan is fulfilled (Gibbs 2018, p. 1370).  This is a clear use of irony, as the plans are made and that of the organized leaders (the chief priests) fails because of people acting in ignorance. Those who respond to the plan of the leaders end up carrying out Jesus' plan (Gibbs 2018, p. 1371). Gibbs suggests the type of irony presented in Matthew's Gospel invites readers to understand the situations in ways which the chief priests did not (Gibbs 2018, p. 1372).

"Matthew 26:6-13 Jesus' Anointing in Bethany: An Enacted Passion Prediction." (pp. 1373-1383).
    Gibbs divides Matthew 26P6-13 into three portions: verses 6-7, 8-9, and 10-13. The passage shows "the disciples' obtuseness and Jesus' steadfast focus on the goal of his ministry (Gibbs 2018, p. 1375). The incident, in Bethany at the home of one "Simon the leper" focuses on the preparation for Jesus' death and burial, though not on the woman who anoints Jesus or on the local household (Gibbs 2018, p. 1376). While Gibbs observes that we know little of the motive behind the woman's action, we are told the root of the response of the disciples. They respond in an indignant way at what they perceive as waste on the part of the woman (Gibbs 2018, p. 1377). They act as if they have no concept whatsoever of Jesus' coming move to death and resurrection. Gibbs is plain that the passage has nothing to do with a comparison of helping the poor versus bringing honor to Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1378). Jesus makes this plain as he rebukes his disciples in verses 10-13. They are to stop troubling the woman, who has performed "a beautiful work" for him (26:10). They can give to the poor at any time, but for now they are to recognize the special nature of the time they have with Jesus (Gibbs 2018, p. 1379). The disciples, however, have no clue of the situation. Gibbs observes that the very same lack of understanding will be an important feature throughout the period leading to Jesus' death (Gibbs 2018, p. 1380).
    Gibbs makes a brief discursus regarding the multiple accounts of Jesus' anointing by a woman, found in Matthew 26:6-13; Mark 14:3-9; Luke 7:36-50; and John 12:1-8 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1382). In Gibbs' model, the four accounts refer to two different events. He takes the incident in Luke 7 to be separate from the one reported in Matthew, Mark, and John. Though the language used is similar, there are enough different details in Luke's account to warrant consideration of it as a different event.

"Matthew 26:14-19 Two Times at the Same Time: Preparations for Betrayal and for Sacrifice." (pp. 1384-1392).
    After some brief grammatical analysis of Matthew 26:14-19, Gibbs observes that verses 14-16 could be treated as distinct from 17-19. However, they are brought together by Matthew, not only by the location in his narrative, but also by strong verbal parallels (Gibbs 2018, p. 1387). Both prepare the reader for the description of the Passion events. Judas, one of the Twelve, seeks out an agreement with the Pharisees to betray Jesus. Gibbs notes the strong irony of one of the Twelve betraying Jesus to his death at the time of the Passover (Gibbs 2018, p. 1388).
    While Judas makes his preparations, the other disciples make preparations for the Passover meal (Gibbs 2018, p. 1389). Gibbs observes that while the disciples are apparently unaware of the bigger picture, Jesus is the one who is actually in control of it, and orchestrates the events accordingly.
    The chronology of this passage is problematic. At issue is the relation of Maundy Thursday and Good Friday to the Passover and the Sabbath (Gibbs 2018, p. 1389). It is unclear whether 26:17, referring to "the first day of Unleavened Bread," refers to the actual Passover day or the day after, when the fasting actually begins. In part, this lack of clarity leads to questions about possible contradictions within the canonical Gospels. While the Synoptic Gospels lead to an expectation of a Passover meal followed by Jesus' arrest during Thursday night, John 18:28 shows the priests not entering Pilate's house on Friday in anticipation of a Passover meal to come (Gibbs 2018, p. 1390). Gibbs takes the account inJohn to refer to the priests' desire for ritual purity for additional events during the Passover season, and that the "preparation" referred to is preparation for the Sabbath, not for Passover proper (Gibbs 2018, p. 1391).

"Matthew 26:20-25 The Darkness Grows: One of Them Will Hand Jesus Over." (pp. 1393-1398).
    Gibbs takes the meal shared as the Passover dinner (Gibbs 2018, p. 1395). It is in the context of this meal that Jesus makes it clear that one of his disciples who is with him will betray him, leading to his death. There are two specific predictions, each with a reaction by one or more disciples. Though the incident is introduced in verse 20, there is no clear conclusion in verse 25, which leaves the reader slightly off balance. In verses 21-22, Jesus makes it clear that one of his disciples will betray him. There is a general questioning of the ideas, along with a rejection of that action by Peter, with concurrence by the others (Gibbs 2018, p. 1396). In verses 23-25, Jesus makes it clear it will be someone who is eating with him at the present time. Judas is not particularly identified except by Matthew's recording of his particular question. Gibbs observes the irony in Judas' question, as he had possibly not responded to the first prediction, as he calls Jesus "Rabbi" rather than "Lord," and as Jesus responds to him alone (Gibbs 2018, p. 1397). Gibbs suggests the emphasis in this passage should be on the grace of Jesus who, knowing all that would happen to him, continues to care for his disciples, including Judas (Gibbs 2018, p. 1398).

"Matthew 26:26-29 A New Mal to Fulfill and Surpass the Old." (pp. 1399-1415).
    Gibbs notes that Matthew 26:26-29 could well be seen as a continuation of the narrative started in verse 20, as it is introduced with the same verbal formula (Gibbs 2018, p. 1399). In his textual notes he briefly discusses the context of the being verb and of the word for "covenant," but treats the issues in more detail later in the commentary section.
    The actual Passover ritual is not a matter which Matthew describes in detail. While an "intricate ritual" has developed over time, Gibbs notes that we are not entirely certain about the nature of the ritual at the time of this meal. At this time, the sacrificial system was still in operation. Yet many of the pieces of information we have about the meal practices come from after the end of the sacrificial system in A.D. 70 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1404). In general, Gibbs takes the practice to likely include the meal and three cups of wine accompanied by ritual words and actions. Matthew's account, however, makes no clear references to the particular stages of the meal (Gibbs 2018, p. 1405). Without a doubt, though, Jesus' statements about his body and blood would have created considerable discomfort (Gibbs 2018, p. 1406). In particular, a pouring out of blood was familiar, but drinking blood was unthinkable. Gibbs notes that there is no record of the disciples' response here, though there is to the events before and after this (Gibbs 2018, p. 1406). The emphasis is on Jesus, not on his disciples.
    A challenge in interpretation of Matthew 26:26 is the fact that, while the Passover was a meal focused on the death of an animal and eating meat, the language of breaking is not applied to meat. Rather, it is applied to bread, which is routinely borken for consumption (Gibbs 2018, p. 1408). Jesus explains the action with the cup in more detail.
    The concept of pouring the blood of a covenant out is an allusion to Exodus 24:5-8, where Moses puts blood on the altar of God and on the people of Israel (Gibbs 2018, p. 1408). Yet Gibbs observes that the Old Testament texts about the Passover do not treat the blood of the animal as something that forgives sins (Gibbs 2018, p. 1409). Jesus' association of the blood and forgiveness seems more like that found in the Day of Atonement. This draws the reader away from Passover toward sacrifices for sin (Gibbs 2018, p. 1410).
    Gibbs notes that the suffering of Jesus has also directed interpreters to Isaiah 52:13-53:12, detailing God's suffering Servant (Gibbs 2018, p. 1411). Though the connections are primarily conceptual, there are some verbal resemblances as well.
    By Matthew 26:29, it is clear that Jesus' intent is to give the Last Supper meal to the church, which will engage in the eating and drinking, but without his presence among the disciples as they have previously known it (Gibbs 2018, p. 1413). Gibbs is clear that this does not in any way deny the Lutheran view of Jesus' bodily presence in the bread and wine of the eucharist. However, unlike previous meals with Jesus present, he is feeding his disciples rather than dining with them (Gibbs 2018, p. 1414). Gibbs briefly considers that in the eucharist we receive both the forgiveness of sins, as in the Day of Atonement offerings, and the protective presence of God, as in the Passover offerings. If this is the case, the elements of the Supper are brought together in a comprehensive manner.

"Matthew 26:30-35 It Is God's Time to Strike and Scatter: Never, Lord! We Will Never Deny You!" (pp. 1416-1425).
    The concepts of "stumbling" and "denying" Jesus are central to understanding Matthew 26:30-35. Gibbs reviews the concepts briefly (Gibbs 2018, p. 1420). In general, Matthew uses language of stumbling to indicate a fall into unbelief. It is thus a very serious matter when anyone is made to stumble. Denial of Jesus is a similarly serious matter. The result of denying Jesus is to be denied by Jesus before God the Father (Gibbs 2018, p. 1421). Matthew presents stumbling into unbelief and denial of Jesus as absolutely possible, and horrific, moves. However, Jesus also promises restoration for his disciples.
    In Matthew 26:31, Jesus predicts the stumbling and denial of his disciples (Gibbs 2018, p. 1422). Jesus will be abandoned by his disciples and even by God the Father (Zech 13:7; Ps. 22). Gibbs observes that in verse 32, Jesus (again) specifically predicts his resurrection (Gibbs 2018, p. 1423). The disciples utterly reject Jesus' prediction. In Matthew 26:33, Peter specifically says he will not reject Jesus. In response, Jesus says clearly and forcefully that Peter will deny him. Peter again rejects this concept in 26:35 (Gibbs 2018, p. 1424). Verse 35 then adds the other disciples, as a chorus, pledging their faithfulness. As always, Gibbs notes, Jesus is right and his disciples are not. They will fall away (Gibbs 2018, p. 1425).

​
0 Comments
<<Previous

    ​Help Fuel This Ministry by Clicking Here!

    All the work of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry, including this blog, is supported by the generosity of people like you. Please consider joining our team of prayer and financial supporters. Read more here!
    Please Note: The opinions presented in blog posts are not necessarily those of Wittenberg Door Campus Ministry. Frequently we report on contrary views, often without comment. Please chime in on the discussion.

    About Throwing Inkwells

    When Martin Luther was dealing with struggles in his life he once saw what appeared to be an angelic being. Not trusting that he was going to be informed by someone other than the God revealed in Scripture, he took the appearance to be untrustworthy and hurled his inkwell at it. The chipped place in the plaster wall is still visible at the Wartburg Castle, though apparently the ink stain on the wall has been refreshed periodically by the caretaker.

    Blog Feeds

    RSS Feed

    Want to keep up with what's happening at Wittenberg Door? Subscribe to our mailing list!

    Categories

    All
    1 Chronicles
    1 Corinthians
    1 John
    1 Kings
    1 Peter
    1 Samuel
    1 Thessalonians
    1 Timothy
    2019-02-feb
    2 Chronicles
    2 Corinthians
    2-john
    2 Kings
    2 Peter
    2 Samuel
    2 Thessalonians
    2 Timothy
    3-john
    Abortion
    Academic-success
    Acts
    Advent 1
    Advent-1-a
    Advent-1b
    Advent-1c
    Advent 2
    Advent-2-a
    Advent-2b
    Advent-2c
    Advent 3
    Advent-3-a
    Advent-3b
    Advent-3c
    Advent 4
    Advent-4-a
    Advent-4b
    Advent-4c
    Akagi 2016
    Aland 1961
    Alesso-2009
    Alexander 1999
    Allegory
    Allitt-2010
    All Saints' Day
    Alon 1996
    Amos
    Anaphora
    Anointing
    Antioch
    Anunciation
    Apollinaris Of Hierapolis
    Apologetics
    Apostles' Creed
    Apostolical Constitutions
    Apostolic Fathers
    Applied Theology
    Aristides Of Athens
    Aristotle
    Aryeh 2021
    Ascension Day
    Ash Wednesday
    Athenagoras Of Athens
    Audet 1996
    Augustine
    Bakker-1993
    Balabanski-1997
    Bammel-1996
    Baptism
    Baptism-of-christ
    Baptism-of-the-lord-b
    Bardy-1938
    Baron-2019
    Baron-maponya-2020
    Bauckham-1984
    Bauckham-2006
    Bauckham-2007
    Beale-1984
    Belief
    Belonging
    Benamos-1999
    Betz-1996
    Biesenthal-1893
    Bigg-1904
    Bigg-1905
    Blogcation
    Blomberg-1984
    Boehme2010
    Botha-1967
    Botha-1993
    Botha-2013
    Braaten-2007
    Bradshaw 2002
    Bruce-1988
    Bruce-1988
    Bryennios
    Butler-1960
    Caneday-2017
    Canonicity
    Capon-1998
    Capon1998
    Carr-2010
    Carson-1991
    Carson-moo-2005
    Catechesis
    Catholicism
    Cerfaux-1959
    Chilton-1984
    Chrismation
    Christmas-1b
    Christmas-1c
    Christmas-dawn
    Christmas-day
    Christmas Eve
    Christmas Midnight
    Chronicles
    Church History
    Church Order
    Circumcision And Naming Of Christ
    Cody 1995
    Colossians
    Conditions
    Confession Of Peter
    Confessions
    Connolly 1932
    Connolly 1933
    Connolly 1934
    Constantine
    Constanza-2013
    Cooper & Lioy 2018
    Costa 2021
    Court 1981
    Creeds
    Culley 1986
    Cyprian
    Daly 1978
    Daniel
    Danielou 1956
    Davids 1984
    Davis 1995
    DeHalleux 1996
    Dehandschutter 1995
    Denominations
    Deuteronomy
    Didache
    Diversity
    Divine Fellowship
    Dix 1933
    Dix-2005
    Dix2005
    Doane 1994
    Draper
    Draper 1984
    Draper 1989
    Draper 1995
    Draper-1996
    Draper-1997
    Draper-2000
    Draper 2005
    Draper-2006
    Draper 2008
    Dube 2016
    Due 2003
    Early Christian Functionaries
    Easter-2
    Easter-2a
    Easter2b
    Easter-2c
    Easter-3
    Easter-3a
    Easter-3b
    Easter-3c
    Easter-4
    Easter-4a
    Easter-4b
    Easter-4c
    Easter-5
    Easter-5a
    Easter-5b
    Easter-6
    Easter-6a
    Easter-6b
    Easter-6c
    Easter-7
    Easter-7a
    Easter-7b
    Easter-7c
    Easter-b
    Easter-day
    Easter-monday
    Easter-sunday-a
    Easter-sunday-c
    Easter-sunrise
    Easter-tuesday
    Easter-wednesday
    Ecclesiastes
    Eleutheria2014
    Elman-1999
    Ephesians
    Epiphany
    Epiphany-1c
    Epiphany-2-a
    Epiphany-2c
    Epiphany-3-a
    Epiphany-3b
    Epiphany-3c
    Epiphany-4-a
    Epiphany-4b
    Epiphany-4c
    Epiphany-5-a
    Epiphany-5b
    Epiphany-5c
    Epiphany-6-a
    Epiphany-6c
    Epiphany-7-a
    Epiphany-c
    Epistle Of Barnabas
    Epistles
    Eschatology
    Esther
    Ethics
    Eucharist
    Evangelism
    Eve-of-the-circumcision-of-christ
    Exodus
    Exodus-20
    Experiential Reading
    Eybers 1975
    Ezekiel
    Ezra
    Fagerberg-1988
    Fagerberg1988
    Fall Of Jerusalem
    Farrell-1987
    Flew-2007
    Flusser-1996
    Forde-2007
    Fraade-1999
    France-2007
    Galatians
    Garrow 2004
    Gender
    Genesis
    Gero 1977
    Gibbins 1935
    Gibbs 2006
    Gibbs 2010
    Gibbs 2018
    Glover-1958
    Goga & Popa 2019
    Gonzalez-2010
    Good-friday
    Gospels
    Greek
    Grosvener-schaff-1885
    Grosvenor-1884
    Guardian-of-jesus
    Habakkuk
    Haggai
    Hagner 1984
    Harnack-1884
    Harrington 2008
    Harris 1887
    Harris 1984
    Hartin 2008
    Hasitschka 2008
    Hearon 2004
    Hearon 2010
    Hebrews
    Heilmann 2018
    Henderson-1992
    Henderson1992
    Henderson 1995
    Hezser 2010
    History
    Hoffman-1986
    Holy Cross Day
    Holy-innocents
    Holy-saturday
    Horsley 2010
    Hosea
    Hutchens2013
    Hymes-1994
    Ignatius Of Antioch
    Incarnation
    Infertility
    Isaiah
    Jaffee-1999
    James
    James Of Jerusalem
    James The Elder
    Jefford 1989
    Jefford 1995
    Jefford 2005
    Jefford 2019
    Jeffreys-1986
    Jeremiah
    Jerome
    Jesus
    Jewish Christianity
    Job
    Joel
    John
    Jonah
    Jones & Mirecki 1995
    Joseph
    Joshua
    Judaism
    Jude
    Judges
    Julian The Apostate
    Jungmann-1959
    Justinian
    Justin Martyr
    Kelber-1987
    Kelber-1995
    Kelber 2002
    Kelber 2010
    Kelber & Sanders 2010
    Kelly 1978
    Kevil
    Kings
    Kleinig-2013
    Kloppenborg 1979
    Kloppenborg 1995
    Kloppenborg 2005
    Kloppenborg 2008
    Koch2010
    Kok 2015
    Kolb-2000
    Kolb2000
    Kolb-arand-2008
    Kolbarand2008
    Konradt 2008
    Koukl 2019
    Kurekchomycz2009
    Lake 1905
    Lamentations
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-a
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-b
    Last-sunday-of-the-church-year-c
    Last Supper
    LaVerdiere 1996
    Law
    Layton 1968
    Lectionary
    Lent-1
    Lent-1-a
    Lent-1b
    Lent-1c
    Lent-2
    Lent-2-a
    Lent-2b
    Lent-2c
    Lent-3
    Lent-3-a
    Lent-3b
    Lent-3c
    Lent-4
    Lent-4-a
    Lent-4b
    Lent-4c
    Lent-5
    Lent-5-a
    Lent-5b
    Lent-5c
    Lessing-2014
    Lessing2014
    Lessing & Steinmann 2014
    Leviticus
    LGBTQ
    Lincoln-1885
    Lindemann 1997
    Literacy
    Literary Character
    Liturgy
    Livesey 2012
    Long-2009
    Lord-1986
    Lord-1987
    Lord's Prayer
    Love
    Luke
    Luther
    Lutheran Confessions
    Lutheran Distinctives
    Maas-2014
    Maccoull-1999
    Maier-1984
    Malachi
    Manuscripts
    Marcion
    Mark
    Marty-2016
    Martyrdom-of-john-the-baptist
    Martyrs
    Mary-magdalene
    Mary-mother-of-our-lord
    Mason-1998
    Massaux-1993-1950
    Matthew
    Matthias
    Mazza-1995
    Mazza-1996
    Mazza-1999
    Mbamalu-2014
    Mcdonald-1980
    Mcdonnell-montague-1991
    Mckean-2003
    Mcknight-2014
    Micah
    Middleton-1935
    Milavec-1995
    Milavec-2003
    Milavec-2005
    Milavec2012
    Miller-2019
    Missional
    Mitch-2010
    Mitchell-1995
    Molina-evers-1998
    Monasticism
    Monday-in-holy-week
    Montenyohl-1993
    Morris-1992
    Motyer-1993
    Mueller-2006
    Muilenburg-1929
    Music
    Nahum
    Nehemiah
    Neufeld-1999
    Newsletter
    New Testament
    New-testament
    Niditch-1995
    Niditch-2003
    Niebuhr-1956
    Niederwimmer-1982
    Niederwimmer-1995
    Niederwimmer-1996
    Niederwimmer 1998
    Numbers
    Oaths
    Obadiah
    Old Testament
    Old-testament
    Olsen-1986
    Ong-1987
    Ong-1988
    Ong-1995
    Oralit
    Orality
    Ordination
    Orphan-hosting
    Osborne-2002
    Osborne-2013
    Overman-2008
    Ozment-1980
    Ozment1980
    Painter-2008
    Palm-sunday
    Palm-sunday-a
    Palm-sunday-c
    Pardee-1995
    Pardee-2012
    Parks-1986
    Passionb
    Pastoral-office
    Pastors
    Patterson-1995
    Paul
    Pearce-1993
    Pentateuch
    Pentecost-10a
    Pentecost-10b
    Pentecost-10c
    Pentecost-11a
    Pentecost-11b
    Pentecost-11c
    Pentecost-12a
    Pentecost-12b
    Pentecost-12c
    Pentecost-13a
    Pentecost-13b
    Pentecost-13c
    Pentecost13c
    Pentecost-14a
    Pentecost-14b
    Pentecost14c
    Pentecost-15
    Pentecost-15a
    Pentecost-15b
    Pentecost15c
    Pentecost-16
    Pentecost-16a
    Pentecost-16b
    Pentecost-16c
    Pentecost-17a
    Pentecost-17b
    Pentecost-17c
    Pentecost-18a
    Pentecost-18b
    Pentecost-18-c
    Pentecost-19a
    Pentecost-19b
    Pentecost-19-c
    Pentecost-1a
    Pentecost-20a
    Pentecost-20b
    Pentecost-20-c
    Pentecost-21a
    Pentecost-21b
    Pentecost-21-c
    Pentecost-22a
    Pentecost-22b
    Pentecost-22-c
    Pentecost-23a
    Pentecost-23b
    Pentecost-23-c
    Pentecost-24a
    Pentecost-24b
    Pentecost-24-c
    Pentecost-25b
    Pentecost-25-c
    Pentecost-26b
    Pentecost-26-c
    Pentecost-2a
    Pentecost-2b
    Pentecost-2c
    Pentecost-3a
    Pentecost-3b
    Pentecost-3c
    Pentecost-4a
    Pentecost-4b
    Pentecost-4c
    Pentecost-5a
    Pentecost-5b
    Pentecost-5c
    Pentecost-6a
    Pentecost-6b
    Pentecost-6c
    Pentecost-7a
    Pentecost-7b
    Pentecost-7c
    Pentecost-8a
    Pentecost-8b
    Pentecost-8c
    Pentecost-9a
    Pentecost-9b
    Pentecost-9c
    Pentecost-b
    Pentecost-c
    Pentecost-eve
    Pentecost-monday
    Pentecost-sunday
    Pentecost-tuesday
    Petersen-1994
    Peterson-2010
    Peterson2010
    Philemon
    Philippians
    Philosophy
    Picirilli-1988
    Pick-1908
    Pieper-1924
    Pieper1924
    Pieper-1968
    Piper-1947
    Pluralism
    Pope Leo I
    Post-70
    Powell-2000
    Prayer
    Preaching
    Presentation-of-our-lord
    Proctor-2019
    Proper19c
    Proper20c
    Proper-21c
    Proper-22c
    Proper-23c
    Proper-24c
    Proper-25c
    Proper-26c
    Proper-27c
    Proper-28c
    Prophecy
    Prophets
    Proverbs
    Psalm
    Psalms
    Purity
    Quinquagesima
    Quintilian
    Rabbinic-character
    Real-presence
    Receptivity
    Reed-1995
    Reformation
    Reformation-day
    Reinhartz-2018
    Reproof
    Repschinski-2008
    Resurrection
    Revelation
    Rhetoric
    Rhoads-2010
    Richardson-gooch-1984
    Riggs-1995
    Ritual-meal
    Romans
    Romeny-2005
    Rordorf-1996
    Rosenberg-1986
    Rosenberg-1987
    Rosenfeldlevene2012
    Rouwhorst-2005
    Rueger-2016
    Russo-1994
    Ruth
    Sacrament
    Sacrifice
    Saenger-1999
    Sailhamer-1992
    Sailhamer1992
    Sale-1996
    Samuel
    Scaer-2004
    Scaer2004
    Schaff-1886
    Schaff-1888
    Schaff-1889
    Schaff 2014
    Schaff2014
    Schollgen
    Schroter-2008
    Schwarz-2005
    Scriptural-usage
    Seeliger-1996
    Senn-1997
    Septuagesima
    Sermon
    Sexagesima
    Sim-2008
    Simon-and-jude
    Smith-2009
    Smith-2018
    Sommerville-2006
    Song-of-songs
    Songofsongs
    St-andrew
    Stark 1997
    St-barnabas
    St-bartholomew
    Stewart-Sykes 2008
    St-john
    St-john-the-baptist
    St-luke
    St-mark
    St-matthew
    St-matthias
    St-michael-and-all-angels
    St-paul
    St-peter-and-paul
    St Philip And St James
    Strawbridge 2017
    St. Stephen
    St. Thomas
    St. Titus
    Sunday Of The Passion
    Svartvik 2008
    Syreeni 2005
    Syria
    Tatian
    Taylor 1888
    TDNT
    Teaching
    Telfer 1939
    Tertullian
    Textual Comparison
    Textual Integrity
    Theological Development
    Theophilos 2018
    Theophilus Of Antioch
    Thielman 2010
    Thursday-in-holy-week
    Timothy
    Titus
    Tomson-2005
    Tomson-2008
    Tradition
    Transfiguration
    Transfiguration-a
    Transfigurationb
    Transfiguration-c
    Trinity-1
    Trinity-10
    Trinity-11
    Trinity-12
    Trinity-13
    Trinity-14
    Trinity-15
    Trinity-16
    Trinity-17
    Trinity 18
    Trinity 19
    Trinity 2
    Trinity 20
    Trinity 21
    Trinity 22
    Trinity 23
    Trinity 3
    Trinity-4
    Trinity-5
    Trinity-6
    Trinity-7
    Trinity-8
    Trinity-9
    Trinity-a
    Trinity-b
    Trinity-c
    Trinity-sunday
    Tsang-2009
    Tuckett
    Tuesday-in-holy-week
    Tuilier-1995
    Tuilier-2005
    Twelftree-1984
    Two-ways
    Ty-19
    Vahrenhurst-2008
    Van-der-merwe-2017
    Van-der-merwe-2019
    Van-der-watt-2008
    Van-de-sandt-2002
    Van-de-sandt-2007
    Van-de-sandt-2008
    Vandesandt2010
    Vandesandt2011
    Van-de-sandt-flusser-2002
    Van-deventer-2021
    Varner-2005
    Vatican-ii
    Veith-1993
    Veith1993
    Veith-sutton-2017
    Verheyden-2005
    Verheyden-2008
    Vikisfreibergs-1997
    Visitation
    Voobus-1968
    Voobus-1969
    Vows
    Warfield-1886
    Wasson-toelken-1998
    Wednesday-in-holy-week
    Wegman 1985
    Wenham-1984
    Wenham-1992
    Weren-2005
    Weren-2008
    Weston-2009
    Wilhite-2019
    Wilson-2011
    Wilson2011
    Wilson20113470b5cf10
    Winger-2014
    Wischmeyer-2008
    Wolmarans-2005
    Wright-1984
    Young-2011
    Ysebaert2002
    Zangenberg-2008
    Zechariah
    Zephaniah
    Zetterholm-2008

Proudly powered by Weebly